2024-03-19T03:29:59+00:00https://finds.org.uk/romancoins/denominations/denomination/id/15/format/jsonhttps://finds.org.uk/romancoins/denominations/denomination/id/15/format/xmlhttps://finds.org.uk/romancoins/denominations/denomination/id/151521QuadransquadransCopper alloy711998-09-28 00:00:002013-04-15 11:47:3056Copper alloy2Caligula1245Caligula59052351gaius3741<p>Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31, 12 - January 24, 41), most commonly known as Caligula, was the third Roman Emperor and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 37 to 41. Known for his extreme extravagance, eccentricity, depravity and cruelty, he is remembered as a despot. He was assassinated in 41 by several of his own guards. </p>
<p>The Roman historian Suetonius referred to Caligula as a "monster", and the surviving sources are universal in their condemnation. One popular tale, often cited as an example of his insanity and tyranny, is that Caligula appointed his favorite horse, Incitatus, to a seat on the senate and attempted to appoint it to the position of consul. The story, however, owes its unrelenting currency to its charm: it is based on a single misunderstood near-contemporary reference, in which Suetonius merely repeats an unattributed rumour that Caligula was thinking about doing it (Suet. Cal. 55.3). </p><p>Caligula is often alleged to have had incestuous relationships with his sisters, most notably his younger sister Drusilla, but there is no credible evidence to support such claims either. In short, the surviving sources are filled with anecdotes of Caligula's cruelty and insanity rather than an actual account of his reign, making any reconstruction of his time as Princeps nearly impossible. What does survive is the picture of a depraved, hedonistic ruler, an image that has made Caligula one of the most widely recognizable, if poorly documented, of all the Roman Emperors; the name "Caligula" itself has become synonymous with wanton hedonism, cruelty, tyranny, and insanity.</p>Caligula.jpgCaligula1_gBGXnI0EpA2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356245153Claudius2246Claudius87172361claudius4154<p>Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 1, 10 BC – October 13, 54) (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus before his accession) was the fourth Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from January 24, 41 to his death in 54. Born in Lugdunum in Gaul (modern-day Lyon, France), to Drusus and Antonia Minor, he was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy. <br />
<br />
Claudius was considered a rather unlikely man to become emperor. He was reportedly afflicted with some type of disability, and his family had virtually excluded him from public office until his consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37. This infirmity may have saved him from the fate of many other Roman nobles during the purges of Tiberius' and Caligula's reigns. His very survival led to his being declared emperor after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family. Despite his lack of political experience, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the conquest of Britain. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. However, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position—resulting in the deaths of many senators. He also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life, one of which led to his murder. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers. More recent historians have revised this opinion.</p>Claudius.jpgClaudius1qhOMSbn-Hgg2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356246154Hadrian6260Hadrian82440741hadrian117138<p>Publius Aelius Hadrianus was born in AD 76 to a cousin of the emperor Trajan. At age ten his father died, and Hadrian became joint ward of Trajan and a Roman knight. He spent a dissolute youth, preferring hunting to military service, and Trajan kept an increasingly strict eye on him. </p>
<p>Trajan and Hadrian grew close while the former reigned. Trajan’s wife Plotina especially favoured Hadrian, and may have faked evidence that Trajan named Hadrian his successor. As emperor, Hadrian ruthlessly eliminated certain enemies, but ruled capably. He scaled back the size of the empire to the natural borders decreed by Augustus (The Danube, the Euphrates, and the Rhine) and built his famous wall to protect Britannia from fierce northern tribes. </p>
<p>Hadrian loved Greek culture, though he famously decried Homer as an inferior poet. He built a large palace at Tivoli and enjoyed pursuing married women and adolescent boys. In his final days, Hadrian suffered from severe sickness and tried many times to commit suicide, but his slaves never allowed it. He handed over government to Antoninus Pius, his chosen successor, and went to Baiae to die. His only major military accomplishment was the suppression of a Jewish revolt when he attempted to establish a new city at the site of Jerusalem. </p>
<p>Hadrian was the first emperor to sport a beard.</p>Hadrian.jpgHadrian4FfaN5r6wPkA2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356260155Antoninus Pius7263Antoninus_Pius62833890antoninus_pius138161<p>Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionus Arrius Antoninus was born in AD 86 to a politically-involved family. He eventually gained the honorific name 'Pius', possibly because of his devotion to duty and upstanding character. He took the usual route through Roman political offices, but he knew little of military affairs. </p>
<p>Hadrian adopted Antoninus in AD 138 after the death of designated heir Aelius Caesar. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus Annius Verus (eventually Marcus Aurelius) and the future emperor Commodus at the same ceremony. Antoninus' succession was unchallenged, and he introduced reforms for the acceptable treatment of slaves. An excellent public speaker, he ruled justly and compassionately. Antoninus engaged in no major military campaigns, and the empire enjoyed peace during his reign.</p>
<p>Antoninus Pius died of a short illness and was deified almost immediately by the Senate. He officially handed his power to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius while dying. His body, along with his wife Faustina's, was laid to rest in the Mausoleum of Hadrian in one of the first imperial inhumations (as opposed to the more-common cremation). </p>
<p>Antoninus Pius followed his predecessor Hadrian's new fashion and wore a beard. He had a stern expression and was very tall and handsome. </p>Antoninus.jpgAntoninus_Pius5otQMpQNKWlA2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356263156Galba3249Galba27034761galba6869<p>Servius Sulpicius Galba was born in 3 BC and known through his younger days as Lucius Livius Ocella. He had two sons by his wife Lepida, but never remarried after her death. Livia Augusta showed Galba great favour during her life, and Gaius (Caligula) placed him as a commander in upper Germany. Upon Gaius’ murder, Galba had an opportunity to grab power, but demurred and grew to be a close friend of the emperor Claudius. </p>
<p>Galba’s achievements in Germany and as proconsul in Africa won him honor, but after appointments to three priesthoods he lived in semi-retirement through the middle of Nero’s reign. He then assumed a governorship in Spain for eight years, where he began to show signs of cruelty in extreme punishments for small crimes. He was hailed as imperator in Spain before the actual death of Nero, and as soon as he heard of Nero’s death he immediately took the name of Caesar and marched into Rome. </p>
<p>Galba aroused hatred with his greed and cruelty, particularly among the army. Fond of food and pleasure, he ate many times per day and punished his real and imagined enemies harshly. He died at the hands of cavalrymen-assassins as Otho made a bid for power. </p>
<p>Suetonius reports that Galba was of medium height with no hair, blue eyes, and a hooked nose. He was heavyset and gout disfigured much of his body. </p>Galba.jpgGalba2#NAME?2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356249157Tiberius1244Tiberius89600176tiberius1437<p>Tiberius Caesar Augustus, born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16, 42 BC – March 16 AD 37), was the second Roman Emperor, from the death of Augustus in AD 14 until his own death in 37. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced his father and remarried to Augustus in 39 BC. Tiberius would later marry Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder (from an earlier marriage) and even later be adopted by Augustus and by this act he became a Julian. The subsequent emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both families for the next forty years; historians have named it the Julio-Claudian dynasty. </p>
<p>Tiberius Claudius Nero is recognized as one of Rome's greatest generals, whose campaigns in Pannonia, Illyricum, Rhaetia and Germania laid the foundations for the northern frontier. But he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler (tristissimus hominum – ‘the gloomiest of men’, by one account), who never really desired to be Emperor. After the death of Tiberius’ son Drusus in 23, the quality of his rule declined, and ended in a Terror. In 26 Tiberius exiled himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Macro. Caligula, Tiberius’ adopted grandson, succeeded the Emperor on his demise.</p>Tiberius.jpgTiberius11B7KqxXksWPU2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356244158Titus4253Titus83217593titus7981<p>Titus Flavius Vespasianus was born in AD 41 and grew up at the court. He was a popular, handsome, and talented youth, both intelligent and skilled at warfare. He was highly successful in Germany and Britain, and commanded one of his father’s legions in Judaea during the suppression of the Jewish revolt. He also saw the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre, or Colosseum, during his reign. </p>
<p>Titus shared the consulship with his father and celebrated an immense triumph for the Jewish War. He grew somewhat cruel as commander of the Praetorian Guards and held riotous all-night parties, but enjoyed quiet dinner-parties with his closest friends. However, Titus was ultimately kind-hearted and attempted to meet all individual petitions favourably. </p>
<p>Titus’ reign, after his father’s death, saw two terrible disasters: the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 and the fire of Rome in 80. He spent much of his personal wealth to aid those afflicted by the disasters. His brother Domitian constantly plotted against Titus, who never directly ordered anyone killed and attacked the practice of informants. Titus died after contracting a fever in the countryside after complaining that he had only one sin on his conscience. He was mourned as an emperor with the best interests of his people at heart. </p>
<p>Suetonius describes Titus as muscular and handsome, though slightly paunchy. </p>Titus.jpgTitus3595LwP9o0HY2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356253159Domitian4254Domitian96284078domitian8196<p>Titus Flavius Domitianus was born in AD 51 and spent a poverty-stricken youth in Rome. He laid low during the war with Vitellius and enjoyed an appointment as city praetor when his family emerged victorious. He planned an unnecessary expedition into Gaul to try to win popularity and honour on par with his brother Titus, and engaged in affairs with many women. </p>
<p>When Titus died, Domitian did little to honour his memory and instead turned to providing extravagant entertainment in the amphitheatre and Circus. He sought to improve public morals and took his duties of justice very seriously, but was also cruel and cunning towards rivals and enemies. His high-handed behaviour led his friends, freedmen, and wife to conspire for his murder, and he died at the hands of a servant in September of AD 96. </p>
<p>Suetonius describes Domitian as tall and well-made, with large weak eyes and a modest expression. He was very self-conscious of being bald. <?p>Domitian.jpgDomitian398NAArs631M2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562541510Vespasian4252Vespasian96539514vespasian6979<p>Titus Flavius Vespasianus was born in AD 9 and grew up on his grandmother's estate. He entered politics rather late and at the urging of his mother; he survived the reign of Gaius by flattering the emperor and commanded a legion in Germany for Claudius. He lost Nero's favour by failing to appreciate the emperor's musical recitals but was appointed to deal with the province of Judaea, where civil discontent was turning into open rebellion. </p>
<p>Vespasian got news of the succession struggles in Rome as Galba, Otho, and Vitellius made their bids for power. He sent troops to Italy and himself went to Alexandria to take control of Italy's grain supply. As soon as he had word of Vitellius' demise, Vespasian went to Rome himself and set about restoring the city that had suffered at the hands of the warring would-be emperors. </p>
<p>A popular emperor who was later deified, Vespasian treated all classes well and reformed the Senatorial order. He was remembered as just and fair, a welcome change after Nero and his successors. He died after catching fever on a visit to Campania.</p>
<p>Suetonius reports that Vespasian had a strong and well-proportioned body but always wore a strained expression on his face. </p>Vespasian.jpgVespasian3z_96ZQAbvCI2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562521511Nerva5255Nerva69725573nerva9698<p>Marcus Cocceius Nerva was born in AD 35 and held public offices under Nero and Vespasian. He may have been banished by Domitian, with whom he may have had a relationship, to Tarentum. Nerva was known for his quiet lifestyle before becoming emperor, and wrote poetry. Domitian\'s assassins approached Nerva as a potential emperor only after others had turned down the offer.</p>
<p>He was known to have a kindly disposition, and he set free many who had been wrongly accused of treason. In fact, some accused Nerva of giving Romans too much freedom and abolishing too many taxes; he tempered his leniency but never put anyone, even those plotting his downfall, to death.</p>
<p>After a year of rule, Nerva was taken captive by the angered Praetorian Guard. The Guard had been faithful to Domitian and sought to avenge his death. He survived and adopted Trajan, naming him a Caesar and co-consul. Nerva died of an illness and was later deified by Trajan. Suetonius describes Nerva as feeble in health but handsome, with a large nose.</p>Nerva.jpgNerva4qH5Nb4kh40I2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562551512Nero3248Nero84036175nero5468<p>Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December 15, 37 - June 9, 68), born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (54 - 68). Nero became heir to the then emperor, his grand-uncle and adoptive father Claudius. As Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus, he succeeded to the throne on October 13, 54 following Claudius' death. In 66, he added the title imperator to his name. In 68, Nero was deposed. His subsequent death was reportedly the result of suicide assisted by his scribe Epaphroditos motivated by the threat of execution.</p>
<p>Popular legend remembers Nero as a playboy engaged in petty amusements while neglecting the problems of the Roman city and empire, the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned".</p>
<p>These assumptions of his behavior are based entirely on hostile sources; namely Suetonius, Dio Cassius and Tacitus. Nero's life was documented almost entirely by his primary rivals - the senatorial class who were pro-Flavian.</p>
<p><img src="http://www.finds.org.uk/images/coins/nero_composite.jpg" height="183" width="500" alt="The changing face of Nero" /></p>
<p>A composite image showing the changing profile of Nero. A further rendering of this change in a <a href="http://bmmedia.blob.core.windows.net/media/nero_channel.mp4">video from the British Museum</a>.</p>Nero.jpgNero_41XQmQRvaxfMM2012-09-24 15:18:23562007-08-09 10:51:43562481513Otho3250Otho84036319otho69<p>Otho was born in AD 32 and led a reckless youth, eventually gaining the favour of Nero. As a confidant, he helped divert attention from Nero’s murder of his mother Agrippina, and enjoyed a close and possibly promiscuous relationship with Nero’s consort Poppaea Sabina. Exiled by Nero for his relations with Poppaea, Otho joined Galba against the emperor and ingratiated himself with as many potential allies as possible. Otho hatched a plan for capturing Galba, which led to the latter’s assassination. </p>
<p>Otho made a show of telling the Senate and armies that he would only accept any offers they saw fit to bestow upon him. His first act as Emperor was to finish Nero’s extravagant Golden House, and soon after his ascent the armies in Germany took an oath of loyalty to Vitellius. Otho plunged into war with them to cement his superiority, but he soon realized he was losing and decided to commit suicide. He was appreciated more after death than during life and even credited with killing Galba to preserve Rome, not from personal ambition. </p>
<p>Suetonius reports that Otho had an uninspiring appearance and kept his body completely hairless. He was of medium height and had bow-legs.</p>Otho.jpgOtho2a2EfmAxtd6U2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562501514Vitellius3251Vitellius16012563vitellius69<p>Aulus Vitellius was born in AD 14 and spent much of his youth on Capri, as one of Tiberius’ young male prostitutes. He became a fixture in the courts of Gaius, Claudius, and Nero, known for his love of gaming and other vices. As a favourite of three emperors, Vitellius achieved many important offices and priesthoods, though he did not always perform them honourably. </p>
<p>Vitellius won favour with the army when appointed to the governorship of Lower Germany by Galba. The army was tired of Galba’s ambition and cruelty, and welcomed the younger and more easygoing Vitellius. When news of Galba’s murder reached Germany, he sent out half the army against Otho, who soon committed suicide. Vitellius proclaimed himself Consul for life, and soon gave way to the vices of extravagance and cruelty. As he killed and tortured many people on the slightest provocation, his popularity fell and Vespasian’s troops from the East marched on Rome. Vitellius was found hiding in the palace and dragged through the streets of Rome by Vespasian’s troops; his body was eventually thrown in the Tiber. </p>
<p>Suetonius reports that Vitellius was quite tall with a huge paunch. He was usually flushed with alcohol. </p>Vitellius.jpgVitellius2wnMrKB0rehg2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562511515Vibia Sabina6261Vibia_Sabina43147132128137<p>Hadrian’s long-suffering wife, Sabina, was Trajan’s great-niece. She endured poor relations with her husband, though she appears on many of his coins. Hadrian’s biographer notes that:</p><blockquote><p>Septicius Clarus…and Suetonius Tranquillus (the biographer of the first twelve Caesars)…(Hadrian) replaced, because they had at that time behaved in the company of his wife Sabina, in their association with her, in a more informal fashion than respect for the court household demanded. He would have dismissed his wife too, for being moody and difficult.</p></blockquote><p>(Life of Hadrian, Scriptores Historiae Augustae). </p><p>Sabina’s ashes were ultimately buried with Hadrian’s at his mausoleum, now the Castel Sant’Angelo. </p>Sabina.jpgSabina42012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562611516Trajan5256Trajan88067472trajan98117<p>Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus (Caesar) was born in AD 53 and spent much of his early career in Syria, where his father was governor. He later served as governor of Germany under Nerva, who also adopted him. After Nerva’s death he entered Rome humbly, but soon began military campaigns. </p>
<p>Trajan treated his citizens well and was known for his affability. He exiled his enemies, but did not kill them, and engaged in public works and restored infrastructure. Trajan’s column still stands at the end of Trajan’s Forum in Rome; the emperor levelled that hilly region and constructed more public buildings. </p>
<p>Although a pederast and heavy drinker, Trajan was well-liked for his policies and government. Among other military endeavours, he conquered Armenia and won many honorific military titles. He died from complications of a possible stroke, though Trajan believed he had been poisoned. He was deified and his ashes placed at the foot of his column. </p>
Trajan.jpgTrajan4BUqxqkvonzU2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562561517Lucius Aelius6262Lucius_Aelius89594231136138<p>Lucius Aelius Caesar was born Lucius Ceionius Commodus. In AD 136, the ailing Hadrian adopted him as heir, supposedly due to Commodus’ good looks; Aelius Caesar grew consumptive and died in his post as governor of Pannonia. </p>Aelius.jpgAelius_Caesar42012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562621518Faustina the Elder7264Faustina_the_Elder26915379138161<p>As the wife of Antoninus Pius, Faustina earned a mixed reputation for her purported fun-loving lifestyle and lack of gravity. The emperor himself wrote very fondly of Faustina, though other reports suggest that her debauchery were a source of grief for her husband. Antoninus Pius may even have suppressed many of the vicious rumors which circulated about his wife. </p>Faustina_I.jpgFaustina52012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562641519Marcus Aurelius (as Caesar)7265Marcus_Aurelius102895066marcus_aurelius139180<p>Marcus Annius Verus was born in AD 121 and somehow caught the attention of the reigning emperor Hadrian. At age 18, he was adopted by Antoninus Pius along with Lucius Ceionius Commodus; he because deeply attached to his adoptive father. </p><p>Upon the death of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius had himself and Lucius Verus proclaimed co-emperors, although it seems to have been his father’s wish that only Marcus Aurelius fulfil that position. Marcus Aurelius may have thus elevated his adoptive brother because he wished to have more time for philosophy. </p><p>Soon after their accession, the dual Caesars faced the Parthian War and, immediately after, the Plague. Germanic invaders also attacked in the north. Verus suffered a stroke in 168, and Marcus Aurelius was left to rule alone. He had to deal with continued revolts in Germany, as well as an attempt by the governor of Syria to gain more power. </p>
<p>Faustina the Younger, wife of Marcus Aurelius, conspired against him with this governor of Syria (Cassius). However, soldiers loyal to the emperor killed Cassius and the ruler himself sought to avoid further conspiracy. At this point, Marcus Aurelius’ son Commodus joined him in the struggles on the Danube frontier. </p>
<p>The emperor died after several years of body pains and a possible dependence on opium. He was buried in Hadrian’s mausoleum and remembered as a good emperor who met with undue hardship. </p>MAurelius1.jpgMarcus_Aurelius_15O6ZSi5MqsEE2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562651520Faustina the Younger8266Faustina_the_Younger96312073147175<p>Marcus Aurelius married Faustina the Younger in AD 145, due to the wishes of Antoninus Pius. </p>
<p>Faustina was reported to have been overcome with passion for a certain gladiator, and that her son Commodus was the product of this union and not her marriage with the emperor. At any rate, the empress was well-known for her passions, particularly for low-life sailors and gladiators. Marcus Aurelius never divorced her, however, out of respect for the wishes of his father. He considered that the empire was the dowry for which he married Faustina, and even promoted several of her known lovers. </p>
Faustina_II.jpgFaustina_II52012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562661521Lucius Verus8267Lucius_Verus42631348lucius_verus161169<p>Lucius Ceionius Commodus was the adoptive second son of Antoninus Pius. He was born in AD 130, and Antoninus Pius favoured Marcus Aurelius to Lucius. </p>
<p>Marcus Aurelius elevated his adoptive brother to co-ruler upon the death of Antoninus Pius. Verus headed the Syrian campaign in the Parthian War; he spent much time with a courtesan and left the fighting to his generals. </p>
<p>Verus suffered a stroke in 168, while returning from an expedition to the Danube frontier with his brother. Marcus Aurelius buried his brother alongside their adoptive father in the Mausoleum of Hadrian. </p>Lucius_Verus.jpgLucius_Verus52012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562671522Lucilla8268Lucilla164169<p>Lucilla was the younger daughter of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina. Her father betrothed her to Lucius Verus (legally his brother) to cement their alliance. </p><p>After Lucius’ death in 169, Marcus Aurelius forced her to marry an older ally of his, which she and Faustina resisted. This second husband died on campaign, however, and she only bore him one daughter.</p>
<p>Lucilla is also remembered for her part in a conspiracy against Commodus, her younger brother, whose temper and irrational behaviour she grew to fear. She was exiled to and eventually executed on Capri with her sister and daughter by Commodus’ agents. </p>Lucilla.jpgLucilla52012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562681523Commodus9269Commodus23502412commodus175192<p>Lucius Aurelius Commodus was born in AD 161. He was the only son among Marcus Aurelius’ fourteen children to survive infancy. In 175, Commodus was made Caesar and in 177, his father elevated him to be joint ruler, and they fought together on the Danube front. On Marcus Aurelius’ death, his son broke off hostilities and ended the northern war in what was considered a shameful settlement, but there was no more trouble on that border for several decades. On the Database, there is a ruler dropdown of 'Commodus under Marcus Aurelius' for coins of Commodus struck between 175 and 180.</p>
<p>Commodus had little interest in government and ruled via a series of powerful administrative officials. This method led to many conspiracies against the emperor, and he reacted violently—exiling and eventually killing his sister and niece, among others. Perennis, the leader of the Praetorian Guard, assumed control and Commodus sought only debauchery and pleasure. However, Perennis started plotting to make his own son emperor, and a large force of troops marched into Rome to alert Commodus to the danger.</p>
<p>Cleander succeeded Perennis as controller of ther government. He too fell, though probably due to a conspiracy by his own enemies. At this point Commodus showed signs of megalomania and general mental instability. He renamed Rome “Colonia Commodiana” and commissioned statues of himself dressed as Hercules. He also fought in the gladiatorial games, unprecedented behaviour for an emperor.</p>
<p>Commodus was poisoned by his favourite concubine, Marcia; when the poison failed to do him in, the emperor was strangled by a young athlete. Commodus’ name was taken out of all documents, though Septimius Severus deified him four years later. The emperor is remembered as a cruel megalomaniac who renamed all the months after himself.</p>Commodus.jpgCommodus5pn4XfCNdDyI2012-06-21 10:32:504912007-08-09 10:51:43562691524Pertinax10271Pertinax74649434pertinax193<p>Pertinax was born AD 126. After the murder of Commodus, Laetus and Eclectus persuaded Pertinax to become Emperor. He bought the support of the Praetorian Guard and was affirmed by the Senate, but tried to institute too many reforms in too short a time. </p>
<p>The Senate and people of Rome were delighted as Pertinax accused the imperial freedmen of embezzlement and sought to curb the excesses of the Praetorian guard, but he alienated these key constituencies by his actions. After only 87 days of rule, Pertinax was killed by a herd of soldiers who stormed the palace. </p>Pertinax.jpgPertinax6anBhEaxXZFU2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562711525Didius Julianus10272Didius_Julianus121896833193<p>After the death of Pertinax, the post of Emperor was essentially auctioned off by the Praetorian Guards to the highest bidder. Didius Julianus made them lavish promises and vowed revenge if they didn’t choose him. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, Severus was hailed as imperator near Vienna and began marching towards Rome. Desperately, Didius made him an offer of dual reign, but Severus didn’t need Didius’ support and continued his march on Rome. He was killed on the Palatine Hill and buried in a family tomb. </p>
Didius_julianus.jpgDidius_Julianus6zgrVEkH6bvI2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562721526Clodius Albinus10275Clodius_Albinus60152178clodius_albinus193197<p>Clodius Albinus was a British usurper who rose to power in the confusion of AD 193. Of North African origin, he had tenuous ties to Severus, who gave him the name Caesar to buy Albinus\' neutrality. </p><p>Albinus crossed into Gaul in 196, while Severus was in Rome. They finally faced off near Lyon, and Albinus committed suicide when his troops were near defeat. Severus cut off his head and sent it back to Rome. </p>Clodius_albinus.jpgClodius_Albinus62012-06-22 11:24:05562007-08-09 10:51:43562751527Septimius Severus10273Septimius_Severus36952961193211<p>Lucius Septimius Severus was born in AD 145 in Lepcis Magna, Libya; he was the first African-born Roman emperor. He came to Rome shortly after turning 18 and Marcus Aurelius made him a senator.</p>
<p>News of the deaths of Commodus and Pertinax reached Severus while he was in Upper Pannonia. The Danube troops hailed him as imperator and he headed for Rome. The Senate realized that his accession was inevitable and hailed him as Caesar. Severus then executed or expelled all those of the Praetorian Guard for taking part in the murder of Pertinax.</p>
<p>Severus had to deal with uprisings and civil war on all sides of the empire; he consolidated his power, but began ailing as he aged. He chose his son Caracalla as successor and married him to the daughter of the leader of the Praetorian Guards.</p>
<p>Severus died at York, while trying for the conquest of Scotland. His sons, with whom he was on the campaign, abandoned the project and took his cremated ashes back to Rome. He was soon deified and fondly remembered as a successful consolidator of Roman power. According to the historian Dio, Severus’ last words to his sons were:</p>
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<p>Agree with each other, make the soldiers rich, and ignore everybody else.</p>
</blockquote>Septimius_severus.jpgSeptimius_Severus7FqFvisVopSs2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562731528Julia Domna10274Julia_Domna84399568193217<p>Severus took Julia as his second wife ca. 187, after consulting an astrologer who said she was destined to marry an emperor. She bore him two sons, Caracalla and Geta. </p>
<p>Julia was notorious for her many adulteries, and moreover had conspired against her husband. However, he did not divorce her. Julia was also known as a patroness of the arts, and continued her influence through the reign of her son Caracalla. She later contracted cancer and starved herself to death. </p>Julia_domna.jpgJulia_Domna72012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562741529Caracalla10276Caracalla88672215caracalla198217<p>Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was born in AD 188, the elder son of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna. He quarrelled bitterly with his younger brother, Geta, throughout his youth. In 198, Severus gave Caracalla the title of Augustus. As Severus ailed, Caracalla angled to succeed him. Julia Domna, however, thwarted his plans, and the brothers became dual emperors when Severus died. </p>
<p>Caracalla and Geta didn’t share the power well, and built up opposing factions. Both had a reputation for cruelty and lack of scruples. After ten months of co-rule, Caracalla murdered his brother, but told the Senate that he did it in self-defence because Geta was trying to poison him. The Senate didn’t really believe him, and when Caracalla began killing off Geta’s supporters, they were further estranged. </p>
<p>Caracalla got his nickname from his preference for a certain type of garment, the caracullus, of German or Celtic origin. This was a close-fitting hooded garment made of many small pieces of cloth. He is also remembered for his immense bathing complex, the remains of which still stand in Rome. </p>
<p>This emperor shed plenty of unnecessary blood, from Geta’s supporters to a massacre of Alexandrians and a surprise attack on the Parthians. While Caracalla was in the East, a plot for his assassination was hatched; the commander of troops in Rome tried to warn the emperor, but Julia Domna intercepted the letter. He was murdered while pulling down his trousers to relieve himself. </p>Caracalla.jpgCaracalla7FOeyibKwESw2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562761530Fulvia Plautilla10277Fulvia_Plautilla202205<p>Publia Fulvia Plautilla was the first wife of Caracalla, selected by his father Septimius Severus to cement relations with the commander of the Praetorian Guard (her father). </p>
<p>Caracalla hated the marriage, and refused to eat or sleep with his wife. He threatened to kill both her and her father when he came to power. In 205, Caracalla arranged to have some centurions bring false accusations against her father, and succeeded in having him executed. Plautilla was exiled for her relation to the wrongfully-killed man, and when Caracalla came to power, he had her killed. </p>Plautilla.jpgPlautilla72012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562771531Publius Septimius Geta10278Publius_Septimius_Geta77699459209212<p>Publius Septimius Geta was born in 189, and quarrelled with his brother all through his youth. He never married and had no children. </p>
<p>Geta was only slightly younger than his brother Caracalla, but received honors such as the title Augustus much later than he. It is probable that Severus never meant Geta to succeed him, but the empress Julia Domna intervened and caused the two sons to be co-emperors upon the death of her husband. The dual reign lasted only ten months, as the emperors obstructed each other, built up rival factions, and plotted each other’s destruction. </p>
<p>Caracalla murdered Geta in February 212, and his supporters shortly thereafter. Geta is said to have died on his mother’s lap. Caracalla strove to eradicate Geta’s memory, by obliterating all portraits and memorials, and so historians know relatively little about this short-lived emperor. He is more fondly remembered in a few literary sources, probably because Geta sought the intellectuals for his faction against Caracalla. </p>Geta.jpgGeta72012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562781532Macrinus10279Macrinus89202499macrinus217218<p>Marcus Opellius Macrinus was born in AD 164 in Mauretania. His Moorish features stood out, but moreso his humble origins—he was the first Roman emperor who was not a senator.</p>
<p>Plautianus, commander of the Praetorian Guard under Severus, appointed Macrinus his steward. In 212 Macrinus became Praetorian Prefect himself, and served under Caracalla in the east. It is unclear whether he aspired to become emperor, but after the assassination of Caracalla, no clear successor emerged. After three days, Macrinus sought the affirmation of the troops. </p>
<p>Macrinus soon fell out with Julia Domna, Severus’ widow. The troops also grew distrustful after Macrinus made a huge monetary settlement with the Parthians, which they viewed as disgraceful to Roman valour. He also began removing some of the troops’ privileges. </p>
<p>The soldiers shifted their allegiance to fourteen-year-old Varius Avitus (eventually Elagabalus), whom they believed to be an illegitimate son of Caracalla. Macrinus saw his power slipping and fled to Rome, but was captured and executed in Cappadocia. </p>Macrinus.jpgMacrinus7isk34RAK8vY2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562791533Elagabalus10281Elagabalus24583475218222<p>Varitus Avitus Bassianus was born in AD 203 or 204, in Syria. He rose to power when 14, because his mother claimed he was Caracalla’s illegitimate child and the army believed her. His mother and grandmother ultimately ran affairs, but Elagabalus was the iconic emperor. </p>
<p>Reportedly beautiful, Elagabalus was the chief priest of the eponymous Syrian sun-god. He attempted to introduce this cult to Rome, even bringing with him the huge stone which represented the god and building it a temple near the Colosseum. Elagabalus also had notorious sexual appetites for both men and women, and promised a huge reward to any doctor who could perform a sex-change operation. He married at least three women within four years. Eventually, the Roman army and senate could no longer respect Elagabalus, and the women behind his administration began quarrelling. He adopted the future Alexander Severus in an attempt to legitimize his power, but the Praetorian Guards murdered Elagabalus and his mother anyway. </p>
<p>Elagabalus had large eyes and a youthful, underdeveloped face. He tended to wear gold or purple tunics, and at times a female diadem. </p>
Elagabalus.jpgElagabalus7oU1c44GywFA2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562811534Julia Soaemias10282Julia_Soaemias57949252218222<p>Julia Soaemias was the mother of Elagabalus, and did much of the administrative work during his short reign. Her lover, Gannys, had the idea of making Elagabalus emperor; Elagabalus had him executed shortly after his accession, probably because Gannys had too much personal ambition. </p>
<p>Julia Soaemias was killed along with her son by the Praetorian Guard in March 222. </p>Julia_soaemias.jpgJulia_Soaemias72012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562821535Julia Maesa10283Julia_Maesa55482864218222<p>Julia Maesa was the grandmother of both Elagabalus and Alexander Severus. With her daughter, Julia Soaemias, she administered Elagabalus’ reign. She turned her support to Alexander Severus when it became clear that Elagabalus would not last long, but died in 224 having had less influence on Alexander’s regime. </p>Julia_maesa.jpgJulia_Maesa72012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562831536Alexander Severus11287Alexander_Severus50018342222235<p>Bassianus Alexianus was born in AD 208 in Phoenicia. He was adopted in 221 by his cousin Elagabalus, as a last attempt to save Elagabalus’ legitimacy as emperor. The military and Praetorian Guard favoured Alexander, and would not carry out Elagabalus’ command to kill the future emperor. Upon the death of Elagabalus, Alexander was proclaimed emperor almost unanimously. </p>
<p>Alexander was 14 when he became emperor, and his mother Julia Mamaea oversaw the appointment of a variety of advisors. She herself ruled in his name, and had many honorific titles (which Alexander grew to resent); she also confiscated much land to add to her personal wealth. Julia Mamaea also arranged his marriage to Orbiana, of whom she grew very jealous. Orbiana was banished shortly thereafter, to the dismay of the weak Alexander. </p>
<p>In 231/2, Alexander set out on an eastern campaign against Persia, and soon after to Germany, with his mother in tow. Already there had been several conspiracies against Alexander, but now Maximinus (one of Alexander’s commanders) arose as a serious threat when the troops supposedly hailed him as imperator. Maximinus’ men then killed Alexander and his mother in their tent, where they were hiding and weeping. </p>
<p>Alexander is remembered as a great emperor, although much of his reign was controlled by his mother and he himself was a weak individual. Had he been more generous to the armies, he likely would have lasted longer. Alexander often appears as a calm youth, in contrast to his predecessor Elagabalus. Portraits and busts show his maturity, from adolescent to young man. </p>Severus_alexander.jpgSeverus_Alexander72etzxo_qFyA2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562871537Julia Avita Mamaea11288Julia_Avita_Mamaea75186187221235<p>Julia Mamaea was the mother of Alexander Severus. She drew resentment from Alexander for her high-handed management and the assumption of many honorific titles. She governed well, but never had the support of the army; she sent the black stone of Elagabalus back to Syria and reversed many of the excesses of the previous regime. </p>
<p>Alexander eventually married someone of Julia Mamaea’s choosing, but the mother then grew jealous of the empress and had her thrown out of the palace. She died in Germania with her son, when Maximinus was acclaimed Emperor by the troops and sent centurions to kill them both. </p>Julia_mamaea.jpgJulia_mamaea72012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562881538Sallustia Orbiana11289Sallustia_Orbiana225227<p>Gnaea Seia Herennia Sallustia Orba Barbia Orbiana married Severus Alexander in 225, a marriage arranged by his mother Julia Mamaea. Julia grew jealous of the new empress and had her thrown out of palace in 227. Frightened, she took refuge with the Praetorian Guards, which Julia then called rebellion. Orbiana was exiled to North Africa and her father was killed. Alexander was supposedly fond of her but too influenced by his mother to save her. </p>Orbiana.jpgOrbiana72012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562891539Aemilianus1264Aemilianus253253<p>Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus was born in 207. He came from Jerba and was a senator; he was acclaimed emperor in Upper Moesia and marched towards Rome. On the way, his soldiers murdered Gallus and Volusian, who tried to stop the advance.</p>
<p>Aemilian had the support of the Senate but not the army. He had entrusted Valerian with raising troops for a campaign on the Danube, but instead Valerian proclaimed himself emperor and used the troops to march on Rome. Aemilian died at the hands of his own men near Spoleto after 88 days of rule. </p>Aemilian.jpgAemilian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356641540Allectus1489Allectus232344001293296<p>Allectus was finance minister to British emperor Carausius. He murdered the emperor in 293 and assumed power. In 296, he was defeated by Constantius Chlorus. </p>Allectus.jpgAllectus142012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356891541Aurelian1373Aurelian77109448270275<p>Lucius Domitius Aurelianus was born ca. 214 in Moesia Inferior (a Danube province). He led a military career and achieved honours under Gallienus; he may have instigated the plot which led to the murder of that emperor. Aurelian did not succeed Gallienus, but allowed the more popular Claudius II to rule. </p><p>When Claudius II died of the Plague, Aurelian became the natural choice for a successor. He went to Rome for the winter, but then went back to the Danube to face the threats of various tribes along the border. Recurring invasions by Germanic groups made Aurelian decide that Rome, unwalled since the reign of Augustus, needed a city wall. He accordingly built the Aurelian Wall (finished by Probus). </p>
<p>Probus, Aurelian’s chief general and future successor, reconquered Egypt; Aurelian re-took the separatist Gallic Empire. He celebrated a huge victory in Rome and set off to fight the Persians. On the way, he fell victim to a misunderstanding—his men thought they were sentenced to punishment and revolted, when in reality the rumor was spread by the emperor’s secretary to escape his own punishment. After only five years this beloved and successful emperor died; the Senate immediately deified him and his soldiers gave him a magnificent burial.</p>Aurelian.jpgAurelian8OBk40o7I7VA2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356731542Balbinus11294Balbinus50029581238238<p>Decius Caelius Calvinus Balbinus was elected, along with Pupienus, by the Senate as Emperor. The move was to oppose Maximinus in the north and make up for the untimely deaths of Gordian I and II. Balbinus and Pupienus were not popular with the people of Rome, who demanded a Gordian ruler; the two were forced to appoint the 13-year-old grandson of Gordian I as Caesar. </p>
<p>The joint emperors were successful in defeating Maximinus at Aquileia. When they got back to Rome, the two began to argue about who was the more important emperor. The Praetorian Guard never took to them, and in May of 168 killed them both. The Praetorians proclaimed Gordian III emperor. </p>
<p>Balbinus had a full, meditative face with a slightly pronounced chin.
</p>Balbinus.jpgBalbinus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562941543Carausius1488Carausius232298846286293<p>Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius was a military commander under Maximian and Diocletian. When the two emperors assembled a military force to fight the Franks and Saxons, Carausius held command of the fleet.</p>
<p>The emperors accused Carausius of taking pirate spoil for himself and resolved to punish him, but he escaped into Britain with a small force. There, he declared himself Augustus and trained the locals as sailors and soldiers.</p>
<p>Diocletian and Maximian failed in their attempts to squash Carausius’ reign. His rule extended far into Gaul, and in 290 the two emperors were forced to recognize his regime. In 293 Allectus, Carausius’ minister of finance, killed him and assumed power.</p>Carausius.jpgCarausius142012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356881544Carinus1485Carinus89202679283285<p>Marcus Aurelius Carinus was Carus’ elder son. He became Augustus on his father’s accession and was left in charge of the Western empire. After the mysterious deaths of both Carus and Numerian, Carinus found himself sole emperor. Soon, the eastern army proclaimed Diocletian emperor and he marched towards Rome, whence Carinus marched out against him.</p><p>Carinus campaigned successfully in Britain and had almost defeated the upstart Diocletian when past misdeeds caught up with him. He had reportedly seduced the wives of many of his officers, and one such officer killed the emperor. All the troops went over to Diocletian, who condemned the memories of Carus, Numerian, and Carinus.</p>Carinus.jpgCarinus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356851545Carus1484Carus282283<p>Marcus Aurelius Carus was born in 244 at Narbo. He was a highly popular military man and leader of the Praetorian Guard when he usurped power from Probus in 282. He immediately raised his two sons, Numerian and Carinus, to the rank of Caesar. </p>
<p>Carus entrusted Carinus, now also Augustus, with government and set out with Numerian for the East. They were highly successful, but Carus died in his tent in the middle of the campaign. The exact circumstances are unclear; supposedly the tent was struck by lightning, though some suggest one of his officers did him in.</p>Carus.jpgCarus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356841546Claudius Gothicus1371Claudius_Gothicus27874193268270<p>Marcus Aurelius Claudius was born in 214. He had the nickname "Gothicus" and was the first of many Illyrian emperors. Claudius was in command of military reserves at Ticinum when Gallienus was killed at Milan. He squashed the rebellion of Aureolus, deified Gallienus, and went north to deal with the Goths. An outbreak of the Plague helped the Romans gain the upper hand over the Goths, but Claudius himself contracted the disease and died. </p>ClaudiusII.jpgClaudius_II8skHTITWG-MQ2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356711547Diocletian1490Diocletian70259756284305<p>Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus was born ca. 245 in Dalmatia. He came from humble origins and rose through the military to serve as commander at Moesia. Diocletian may have played some part in the deaths of Carus and Numerian; his troops proclaimed him emperor and he marched against Carinus in Rome. Carinus met him in battle and was ultimately killed, and Diocletian gained the support of his troops. </p>
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<p>In 285, Diocletian appointed his colleague Maximian as Caesar and gave him control of the Western provinces; the emperor had no sons on whom to rely. In 286 Maximian was raised to Augustus, and propaganda tended to identify Diocletian with Jove and Maximian with Hercules. </p>
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<p>Diocletian spent five years campaigning against the Danube tribes and unsuccessfully dealing with the upstart Carausius. Although the dual emperor system worked well, he began to worry about the succession. As a solution, Diocletian and Maximian each appointed a junior Caesar to succeed when either of the Augusti died (Constantius and Galerius.)</p>
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<p>Diocletians reorganization of the imperial system proved his greatest contribution to the Roman empire. The Senates influence was on the decline, and the empire was divided into more orderly provinces, with stricter rules about their governance. He is also remembered for reinstating worship of the traditional Roman pantheon and persecuting Christians.</p>
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<p>Diocletian and Maximian gave up power in 205, and Diocletian retired to Split (in modern Croatia) where he died in 311.</p>Diocletian.jpgDiocletian10vuKSi8_w-hw2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356901548Florianus1482Florianus276276<p>Marcus Annius Florius succeeded Tacitus as emperor. He had been commander of the Praetorian Guard and was quickly recognized by the senate. </p><p>Florian quickly marched east to continue fighting the Heruli, and soon had them nearly defeated. However, the eastern commander Marcus Aurelius Probus was declared emperor by Egypt, Syria, and the other eastern provinces. Florian marched south to encounter Probus but his much-larger army was soon decimated by heat and disease. His soldiers lost their loyalty, and Probus’ men talked them into deposing Florian in favour of Probus. Florian was killed by his own troops, who erected a statue in his honour.</p>Florian.jpgFlorian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356821549Jotapianus12366Jotapianus248249<p>Marcus Fulvius Rufus Jotapianus claimed to descend from Alexander the Great and was proclaimed emperor by his army in Syria. He stirred up revolt against Rome in Syria and Cappadocia, but was killed by his own soldiers. </p>Jotapian.jpgJotapian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563661550Gordian I11292Gordian_I3274737238238<p>Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus was born ca. 158. He was serving as governor of Africa Proconsularis when the fiscal curator, a supporter of Maximinus, was murdered. The young aristocrats of the area approached Gordian to become emperor, which he did,possibly because he was old enough not to care about the prospective danger of the post. </p>
<p>Gordian went to Carthage and sent messages to Rome, where the Senate eagerly confirmed his position. Gordian came from a respected upper-class lineage, unlike Maximinus; the Senate also made his son Gordian II an Augustus. </p>
<p>Numidia, which bordered Africa Proconsularis, had a longstanding grudge for the Gordians. The Numidian governor Capellianus controlled a legion, and with it marched on Carthage. He easily overwhelmed the provincial forces and killed Gordian II. When Gordian I heard of his son's death, he hanged himself. The pair had only reigned for 20 days. </p>
<p>Gordian I was an old man, often described as having grey hair and a somewhat heavy brow. </p>GordianI.jpgGordian_I82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562921551Gordian II11293Gordian_II47565555238238<p>Gordian II was born around 192. When his father was acclaimed emperor and supported by the Senate in 238, Gordian II was named Augustus as well. He died when Numidian forces attacked Carthage in 238, after 20 days of co-rule. </p>GordianII.jpgGordian_II82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562931552Gordian III12296Gordian_III89202520238244<p>Marcus Antonius Gordianus was born in 225 to Gordian I\'s daughter. Gordian III was named Caesar by Pupienus and Balbinus in a move to pacify the people of Rome; he was proclaimed sole emperor by the Praetorian Guard in May 238. </p>
<p>Military conflict broke out as the Persians attacked Roman territory. When the able commander of the Roman forces, the father of Gordian III\'s wife and former commander of the Praetorian Guard, died, his replacement was a less conscientious commander. This new leader, Phillip the Arab, used his position to foment mutiny rather than to fight the war, and he undermined Gordian III\'s power as much as he could. </p>
<p>Gordian III called the soldiers to choose between Philip and himself, and they chose Philip. Gordian was killed and his remains brought back to Rome; the Senate deified him.</p>GordianIII.jpgGordian_III82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562961554Macrianus Major13371Macrianus_Major260261<p>Fulvius Junius Macrianus was the son of a general of Valerian fighting in Persia. Upon the Persians’ capture of Valerian, Macrianus and his brother Quietus were declared emperors, in an effort to rally support and stop the Persian advance. After causing the Persians to retreat to the Euphrates, Macrian and his father set out to challenge Gallienus in Europe. At Illyricum they ran into troops loyal to Gallienus, who killed father and son. </p>Macrian.jpgMacrian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563711555Laelianus1376Laelianus1484100269269<p>Laelian was governor of Upper Germany under Postumus and had two legions at his command. He led a rebellion at Mainz, but his supporters soon dwindled and Postumus recaptured Mainz. Laelian died sometime during the battle, though the exact details are not know. Postumus died shortly thereafter at the hands of his own soldiers, angry when he did not allow them to pillage the city. </p>Laelian.jpgLaelian92012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356761556Maximian1591Maximian50478873286310<p>Maximian was born ca 250. He was adopted by Diocletian and made co-Augustus in 286; Maximian effectively ruled the western part of the empire while Diocletian dealt with problems in the north and east. </p><p>With Diocletian, Maximian restored the Forum in Rome and built a set of baths even bigger than Caracalla’s. He adopted Constantius as his son and successor when Diocletian adopted Maximian; he abdicated power with Diocletian in 305. However, Maximian did not take well to retirement. As a Senior Augustus, he continued to involve himself at times in affairs of the empire. He died at Marseilles in 310; he may have been murdered, or may have committed suicide. </p>Maximian.jpgMaximian102j3Ed3Q9pT82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356911557Numerian1487Numerian809970282284<p>Marcus Aurelius Numerianus was Carus’ younger son, born around 253. He was made Caesar when his father became emperor, though he was reportedly bookish and uninterested in ruling or warfare. Upon the suspicious death of Carus, Numerian was left in charge of the entire Persian campaign. After negotiating peace with the Persians, he headed back to Rome to confer with his brother Carinus. He never made it; Numerian died under suspicious circumstances, possibly poisoned.</p>Numerian.jpgNumerian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356871558Pacatianus12365Pacatianus248249<p>Tiberius Claudius Marinus Pacatianus usurped power briefly during the reign of Philip I in Upper Moesia. He was murdered by his own soldiers. </p>Pacatian.jpgPacatian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563651559Postumus1375Postumus243990358260269<p>Postumus was proclaimed emperor by his forces, the Rhine legions, in 260; he captured and executed Gallienus’ son Saloninus. However, the purpose of his revolt was not to march on Rome but to create a Western empire. Gallienus left Postumus alone when it became clear that he would not march on Rome; later Gallienus attacked the rebel but suffered personal injury and went back to Rome.</p><p>Postumus didn’t support Aureolus’ defection in 268 and refused to enter the conflict in Italy. However, this move may have cost him some support and he was killed the next year during the revolt of Laelian by his soldier, angered when he would not let them pillage Mainz.</p>Postumus.jpgPostumus92012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356751560Probus1483Marcus_Aurelius_Probus72190445276282<p>Marcus Aurelius Probus was born in 232. He was a highly accomplished military man, much like the emperor Aurelius. When Florian was betrayed by his own men, his rival Probus became emperor. Probus spent his most of his reign trying to consolidate the empire, generally by solidifying the borders which were increasingly attacked by Goths, Vandals, Germanic tribes, etc. In 280 he also had to deal with internal insurrections, when Bonosus and Proculus proclaimed themselves emperors at Cologne. British and Moorish governors also grabbed at power. </p>
<p>After celebrating a triumph for his German victories, Probus set out again for the east. In his absence Carus, the Praetorian Prefect, raised support and made a bid for power. Probus sent troops back to crush the movement, but these troops defected to the usurper. When Probus’ remaining troops heard of the defection, they murdered him in a look-out tower near Sirmium.</p>Probus.jpgProbus8mA2mdivjT982012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356831561Pupienus11295Pupienus75111555238238<p>Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus was born in 164. He was elected, along with Balbinus, by the Senate as Emperor. The move was to oppose Maximinus in the north and make up for the untimely deaths of Gordian I and II. Balbinus and Pupienus were not popular with the people of Rome, who demanded a Gordian ruler; the two were forced to appoint the 13-year-old grandson of Gordian I as Caesar. </p>
<p>The joint emperors were successful in defeating Maximinus at Aquileia. When they got back to Rome, the two began to argue about who was the more important emperor. The Praetorian Guard never took to them, and in May of 168 killed them both. The Praetorians proclaimed Gordian III emperor. </p>
<p>Pupienus had a long, gaunt face and full beard. </p>Pupienus.jpgPupienus84qNy40YVA5s2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562951562Quietus13372Quietus25505871260261<p>Fulvius Junius Quietus was the son of a general of Valerian fighting in Persia. Upon the Persians’ capture of Valerian, Quietus and his brother Macrianus were declared emperors, in an effort to rally support and stop the Persian advance. Quietus remained in charge of the eastern provinces while his father and brother set off to vanquish Gallienus. After their death, Quietus was besieged in Emesa by the Palmyran king Odenathus, by whom he was captured and killed.</p>Quietus.jpgQuietus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563721563Quintillus1372Quintillus232346397270270<p>Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus was the younger brother of Claudius II. He succeeded his brother when his troops proclaimed him emperor but the troops switched their loyalty to Aurelian. Quintillus despaired and committed suicide after a very short reign.</p>Quintillus.jpgQuintillus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356721564Regalianus13373Regalianus136306985260260<p>Publius Caius Regalianus was governor of Upper Pannonia. His history is obscure; he seems to have seized power after the downfall of Valerian and been put to death shortly thereafter by his own soldiers. </p>Regalian.jpgRegalian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563731565Tacitus1481Marcus_Claudius_Tacitus20744377275276<p>Marcus Claudius Tacitus was born ca. 200 in the Danube provinces. He became emperor when he was about 75 years old. The circumstances of his accession are unclear; Aurelian left no apparent heir, and after some period of interregnum the Senate or the armies put forth Tacitus as the next candidate. </p><p>After becoming emperor, Tacitus set out to take the forces Aurelian had amassed into Persia. He won victories in Asia Minor and was given the name ‘Gothicus Maximus,’ but was murdered on his way back to Rome in Cappadocia. He had only reigned six months, but was a favourite of the Senate. </p>Tacitus.jpgTacitus8qUD_SVZcOVE2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356811566Tetricus I1379Tetricus_I11425945271274<p>Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus became emperor of the Gallic empire after the assassination of Victorinus in 271. He was loosely related to Victorinus’ mother Victoria, who paid a large bribe to the armies for their allegiance. He made his young son Tetricus II a Caesar, and may have later named him Augustus and co-ruler. </p>
<p>Tetricus was an accomplished military commander, and he defeated a German invasion. He also fought against Aurelian’s attempt to take the Gallic Empire back into the main Roman Empire, but the circumstances of the Gallic Empire’s ultimate capitulation are shady. Tetricus was not executed but given an administrative post, and both father and son appear to have lived out their days in peace. Some suggest that Tetricus asked Aurelian to intervene and take Gaul back into the Roman Empire when he could no longer deal with internal strife and administration. </p>TetricusI.jpgTetricus_I92012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356791567Tetricus II1380Tetricus_II272274<p>Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus (who had the same name as his father) probably received the title Caesar in 273 from his father. He may have been promoted to Augustus near the end of his father’s reign, but the evidence is inconclusive. When Aurelian re-integrated the Gallic Empire back into the Roman, Tetricus II lived out his days in Rome. </p>TetricusII.jpgTetricus_II92012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356801568Decius12300Decius10649322249251<p>Quintus Decius Valerinus was born ca. 190 and was the first of many emperors to come from the Balkans. His career included a consulship and three governorships, and served as urban prefect under Philip I. </p>
<p>After Philip’s death, Decius went to Rome and consolidated his power; he took the name Traianus out of respect for the great emperor of the last century, and undertook many building projects. He also repaired the Colosseum, which continued to be struck by lightning. </p>
<p>Decius is remembered for persecuting Christians and forcing them to sacrifice to the emperor, though his edict was in fact not aimed solely at Christians. Decius died in battle against the Goths—the first emperor to die fighting a foreign enemy.</p>TrajanDecius.jpgTrajan_Decius8w_LnIuv-pvY2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563001569Trebonianus Gallus1262Trebonianus_Gallus77390962251253<p>Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus was born ca. 206. He had served as senator, consul, and governor; he also served under Decius in the Danube wars. </p>
<p>Upon the death of Trajan Decius, Gallus became emperor and adopted Decius’ surviving son Hostilian, whom he also made co-emperor. The two emperors went back to Rome, where Hostilian died of the Plague and Gallus raised his son Volusianus to the rank of emperor. The Roman people respected Gallus for his efforts to provide proper burial to all Plague victims, but the emperor faced military trouble on the northern and eastern frontiers. In Upper Moesia, Aemilius Aemilianus was proclaimed emperor by his legions and began to march on Rome. </p>
<p>Gallus and his son tried to meet Aemilianus’ troops and met them 50 miles north of Rome. Soldiers murdered the emperor and his son in August 253.</p>TrebonianusGallus.jpgTrebonianus_Gallus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356621570Vaballathus13376Vaballathus271272<p>Julius Aurelius Septimius Valbalathus Athenodorus was the son of a lieutenant of Gallienus, Septimius Odaenathus. This lieutenant served Gallienus well and ruled Palmyra, until he was killed under suspicious circumstances which left power in the hands of his widow Zenobia and ten-year-old son Vabalathus. </p>
<p>Gallienus, Claudius, and Quintillus all refused to grant Vabalathus the titles his father had won. When Aurelian became emperor, he didn’t have the resources to directly confront Vabalathus, so he granted him the titles. Two years later, Aurelian had the means to destroy Palmyrene power; he took both Valabalathus and Zenobia captive and paraded them through Rome in his triumph. Zenobia was permitted to live out her days in honourable retirement; the fate of Vabalathus is unknown. </p>
<p>Therefore, Vabalathus had the title Augustus in AD 272, when he issued joint coinage honouring himself and Aurelian.</p>Vabalathus.jpgVabalathus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563761571Valerian (emperor)1265Valerian_(emperor)89202605253260<p>Publius Licinius Valerianus was of noble descent and succeeded Aemilian by proclaiming himself emperor and killing his predecessor. The Senate approved of him and immediately elevated his son Gallienus to co-ruler; hope was that the two could bring order to the troubled empire. </p><p>
Valerian dealt with Syria and the Persians; he had initial success and was granted the title “Restorer of the Orient”. Gallienus took care of the Germans. However, Valerian’s successes grew fewer and he stupidly agreed to negotiate with the Persian king accompanied only by a small retinue. The Persian king took Valerian captive, and he died in captivity.</p>Valerian.jpgValerian83Ug0D-9hPO82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356651572Victorinus1378Victorinus39390108269271<p>Marcus Piavvonius Victorinus succeeded Marius to power; he had risen to high office under Postumus. The Gallic Empire ran into harder times as Spain refused to recognize Victorinus and a force of Claudius II seized territory east of the Rhone. Victorinus also had to put down several revolts and gained the hatred of his entourage by seducing their wives. He was killed in 271 when caught propositioning the wife of an official. </p>Victorinus.jpgVictorinus92012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356781573Volusianus1263Volusianus251253<p>Gaius Vibius Volusianus was the son of Trebonianus Gallus. Upon his father’s accession in 251, Volusian was given the title of Caesar. When Hostilian died, Volusian became Augustus and ruled jointly with his father. He died in 253, murdered with his father by soldiers of Aemilian. </p>Volusian.jpgVolusian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356631575Gallienus (Joint reign)1267Gallienus55453496gallienus253260<p>Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus was the son of Valerian, born in 213. He ruled with his father, commanding the armies in the West while his father took care of the East. Valerian was taken captive by the Persians, and thus Gallienus became sole emperor. He struggled to keep the empire together and introduced a policy of religious tolerance that lasted for decades. Over seven attempts were made to set up a rival emperor and a series of secessionists in Gaul made things difficult. </p>
<p>A major revolt by Postumus formed a northern ‘empire’ which lasted about 15 years. Gallienus was a good soldier but unable to cope with the many factions on all edges of the empire; he was killed by his men near Milan and buried on the Appian way. His legacy is undeservedly bad; he alienated the Senate by refusing to allow senators into the military, a policy which stemmed from the recent betrayals and succession issues caused in part by senators in the army. </p>Gallienus1.jpgGallienus_182012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356671576Gallienus (sole reign)13370Gallienus55453496gallienus260268<p>Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus was the son of Valerian, born in 213. He ruled with his father, commanding the armies in the West while his father took care of the East. Valerian was taken captive by the Persians, and thus Gallienus became sole emperor. He struggled to keep the empire together and introduced a policy of religious tolerance that lasted for decades. Over seven attempts were made to set up a rival emperor and a series of secessionists in Gaul made things difficult. </p>
<p>A major revolt by Postumus formed a northern ‘empire’ which lasted about 15 years. Gallienus was a good soldier but unable to cope with the many factions on all edges of the empire; he was killed by his men near Milan and buried on the Appian way. His legacy is undeservedly bad; he alienated the Senate by refusing to allow senators into the military, a policy which stemmed from the recent betrayals and succession issues caused in part by senators in the army. </p>Gallienus2.jpgGallienus_282012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563701577Marcus Aurelius (as Augustus)8359Marcus_Aurelius102895066marcus_aurelius161180<p>Marcus Annius Verus was born in AD 121 and somehow caught the attention of the reigning emperor Hadrian. At age 18, he was adopted by Antoninus Pius along with Lucius Ceionius Commodus; he because deeply attached to his adoptive father. </p><p>Upon the death of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius had himself and Lucius Verus proclaimed co-emperors, although it seems to have been his father’s wish that only Marcus Aurelius fulfil that position. Marcus Aurelius may have thus elevated his adoptive brother because he wished to have more time for philosophy. </p><p>Soon after their accession, the dual Caesars faced the Parthian War and, immediately after, the Plague. Germanic invaders also attacked in the north. Verus suffered a stroke in 168, and Marcus Aurelius was left to rule alone. He had to deal with continued revolts in Germany, as well as an attempt by the governor of Syria to gain more power. </p>
<p>Faustina the Younger, wife of Marcus Aurelius, conspired against him with this governor of Syria (Cassius). However, soldiers loyal to the emperor killed Cassius and the ruler himself sought to avoid further conspiracy. At this point, Marcus Aurelius’ son Commodus joined him in the struggles on the Danube frontier. </p>
<p>The emperor died after several years of body pains and a possible dependence on opium. He was buried in Hadrian’s mausoleum and remembered as a good emperor who met with undue hardship. </p>MAurelius2.jpgMarcus_Aurelius_25O6ZSi5MqsEE2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563591578Marcus Aurelius Marius1377Marcus_Aurelius_Marius269269<p>Marcus Aurelius Marius succeeded Postumus in the Gallic Empire. He seems to have been of very humble origin and possibly a blacksmith by trade. He was strangled in a private quarrel and died after a very short reign. </p>Marius.jpgMarius92012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:4356771579Maximinus Thrax11290Maximinus_Thrax72703271235238<p>Gaius Julius Valerius Maximinus was born in Thrace and began life as a lowly soldier. He rose through the ranks until, by the military campaigns of Severus Alexander, he had control of a legion and governorship of Mesopotamia. He was involved in Alexander’s German campaign and acclaimed emperor by his troops near Mainz. </p>
<p>The Senate did not like Maximinus because he spent no time in Rome and extorted huge sums of money to finance his very successful military campaigns. They also viewed him with prejudice because of his very humble origins. Gordian I and II tried to take over the government from Africa, but that rebellion was put down; in Rome, Balbienus and Pupienus were elected joint emperors by the Senate and Maximinus marched towards Rome. He was stopped in Aquileia when the town refused to offer him shelter. He started a siege but was killed by assassins who took his head to Rome. </p>
<p>Maximinus, also called Maximinus Thrax in refernce to his Thracian origins, was a huge man with a prominent chin. Reports characterize him as abnormally tall and very muscular. </p>
Maximinus.jpgMaximinus8CXGUIZvcUQ42012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562901580Philip the Arab12297Philip_the_Arab67260910244249<p>Philip I, or Philip the Arab, was born ca. 204 in Arabia. He rose through the army to become Praetorian Commander under Gordian III; during the Persian campaign, his troops gave him their support against Gordian and made him emperor. He killed Gordian and later deified him in Rome. </p>
<p>Philip soon agreed to peace terms with Persia, though with terms that many Romans considered insulting: he made a huge down-payment and accompanied it with an annual indemnity. The emperor then spent much of his time on military campaigns, and made his young son Augustus in 247. He built a large reservoir at Rome to help with chronic water shortage, and celebrated the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome with a series of festivals and games in 248. </p>
<p>Two uprisings broke out in 248; the first, Pacatian was named emperor by the Danube troops, but the soldiers then killed him. In the east, Jotapian was proclaimed emperor and not suppressed for almost a year. Two other rebellions are known only from coinage. </p>
<p>Philip died in battle as Decius, a commander he had appointed to deal with the Goths, attacked him in Macedonia.
</p>PhilipI.jpgPhilip_I87VoTmfK7nNA2012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562971581Annia Faustina10286Annia_Faustina220221<p>Annia Faustina was Elagabalus’ third wife. He married her in 221 and divorced her soon after. </p>AnniaFaustina.jpgAnnia_Faustina72012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562861582Agrippina the Elder2353Agrippina_the_Elder15560280-1433<p>Agrippina was born in Athens, Greece. In AD 5 she married Germanicus, her second cousin and step-grandson of the Emperor Augustus.</p>
<p>Agrippina had nine children by Germanicus, three of whom died in infancy; the surviving six were:</p>
<ul>
<li>Nero Caesar</li>
<li>Drusus Caesar</li>
<li>Gaius (Caligula, future Emperor)</li>
<li>Agrippina the Younger, mother of Emperor Nero</li>
<li>Julia Drusilla</li>
<li>Julia Livilla</li>
</ul>
<p>She was regarded by her peers as a woman of the highest character, moral but arrogant and ambitious for herself and her family. In Tacitus' Annals 6.25 he commented:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>...could not endure equality and loved to domineer with her masculine aspirations was far removed from the frailties of women...</p>
</blockquote>
<p>On the surface it appears that she was a victim of tyranny; dig deeper and she had done much to provoke her fate.</p>Agrippina1.jpgAgrippina_112012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563531583Agrippina the Younger2395Agrippina_the_Younger878733471559<p>Agrippina the Younger (sometimes called Agrippanilla) was born in AD 15 to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. At age 13 she married Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus; she bore him one child, the future emperor Nero (named Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus). </p><p></p>
<p>During the reign of her brother Gaius, Agrippina first enjoyed the special honors he bestowed upon his three sisters. However, after the death of their pregnant sister Drusilla, Gaius treated the two remaining sisters very poorly - some sources report that he forced them to dive for sponges. </p><p></p>
<p>The emperor Claudius married Agrippina, his niece, after the death of his third wife (Messalina). She set about angling for her son to become Claudius' heir, although he already had a natural son named Britannicus. Nero was three years older than Britannicus, and achieved far greater honours. Once she guaranteed this succession, it is reported that Agrippina poisoned Claudius in a dish of fancy mushrooms. </p><p></p>
<p>Agrippina sought even greater power through Nero. At first, he treated her well and allowed her contributions to rule; in AD55, however, he dismissed her guards and told her to leave the palace. She survived a number of assassination attempts, including a boat that purposely collapsed with her in it. She swam to shore; soldiers followed her to her home and killed her there. </p>Agrippina2.jpgAgrippina_212012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563951584Antonia Minor2247Antonia_Minor866860004154<p>Antonia the Younger was born in 36 BC to Octavia (Augustus sister) and Marcus Antonius. She never knew her father, who took up with Cleopatra of Egypt and divorced Octavia. </p><p></p>
<p>Antonia married Nero Drusus, brother of Tiberius and son of Livia Augusta. She inherited much land and was an influential woman; her children include the famous general Germanicus and the future emperor Claudius. After the death of Drusus in 9 BC, Tiberius became her childrens guardian. She constantly made fun of her lame son Claudius, who spoke with a severe stutter. </p><p></p>
<p>She took care of her grandchildren when Germanicus died under mysterious circumstances, and during the early part of his reign Gaius (Caligula) often asked for her advice. As her influence waned and Caligula acted less and less sanely, she committed suicide. </p>
<p></p>
<p>Antonia was deified by her son Claudius when he became emperor. </p>Antonia.jpgAntonia12012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562471588Bruttia Crispina9270Bruttia_Crispina178187<p>Bruttia Crispina was the daughter of L. Fulvius Bruttius Praesens. She married the future emperor when he was 16 years old. After ten years of marriage, she was banished to Capri for adultery and later killed. </p>Crispina.jpgCrispina52012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562701589Domitia Longina4357Domitia_Longina8196<p>Domitia Longina was married to Aelius Lamia when Domitian came to power. He grew infatuated and she divorced Lamia to marry the emperor. She was later involved in the plot to end Domitian’s life, after which she lived as a private citizen until 130. </p>Domitia.jpgDomitia32012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563571590Didia Clara10352Didia_Clara193193<p>Didia Clara was the daughter of the short-termed emperor Didius Julianus. She and her mother survived his assassination in 193 and buried his body. </p>DidiaClara.jpgDidia_Clara62012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563521593Diadumenian10280Diadumenian89203309217218<p>Marcus Opellius Diadumenianus was born in 208. When his father Macrinus was saluted as Augustus in 217, Diadumenian was given the title Caesar. In May of 218, the boy was also given the title Augustus—which was never confirmed by the Senate, but appears on some coins. The supporters of Elagabalus overwhelmed Macrinus and Diadumenianus fled to Parthia, but was intercepted and killed. </p>Diadumenian.jpgDiadumenian7cBXbaPDleC02012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43562801594Domitianus II (usurper)13375Domitianus_II_(usurper)271271<p>This usurper is identified with the general Domitian mentioned in the Historia Augusta as the most trusted and bravest officer of Aureolus. If this is accurate, Domitian may have made a bid for power when Aureolus sent him to Cologne as envoy to Postumus; perhaps he had a brief reign just after the death of Postumus or Marius. </p>DomitianII.jpgDomitian_II92012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43563751595Domitilla the Elder4355Domitilla_the_Elder3969<p>Flavia Domitilla was not even a full Roman citizen when Vespasian married her in AD 39; she had been the mistress of a Roman knight. She gave him two sons and a daughter who did not survive infancy; her sons, Titus and Domitian, both became emperors. </p>Domitilla.jpgDomitilla32012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435635515101Cornelia Supera12368Cornelia_Supera249249<p>Gaia Cornelia Supera was Aemilian’s wife. She is completely unknown to history.</p>CorneliaSupera.jpgCornelia_Supera82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435636815110Herennia Etruscilla12301Herennia_Etruscilla249251<p>Herennia Etruscilla was a member of the Italian aristocracy. She married Decius and gave birth to Quintus Herennius Decius and Gaius Valens Hostilianus (known as Herennius Etruscus and Hostilian). Her name also appears Herannia. </p>HerenniaEtruscilla.jpgHerennia_Etruscilla82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435630115111Herennius Etruscus1260Herennius_Etruscus250251<p>Herennius Etruscus was the elder son of Decius. He became Caesar in 250 and Augustus in 251, but perished with his father in the battle against the Goths. </p>HerenniusEtruscus.jpgHerennius_Etruscus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43566015113Hostilian1261Hostilian251251<p>Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus was Trajan Decius’ younger son. He became Caesar in 251, and survived his father and brother. Decius’ successor, Trebonianus Gallus, adopted Hostilian and raised him to Augustus, but Hostilian died after a very short period of joint rule when he contracted the Plague.</p>Hostilian.jpgHostilian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43566115117Julian (of Pannonia)14379Sabinus_Iulianus284285<p>Marcus Aurelius Julianus was governor of Venetia in Italy when Numerian died. The Pannonian army proclaimed him emperor and planned to invade Italy, but Carinus defeated them near Verona and Julian died on the battlefield.</p>JulianofPannonia.jpgJulian_of_Pannonia82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435637915118Julia Flavia4356Julia_Flavia7989<p>Julia Flavia Titi was the daughter of Titus and Marcia Furnilla. Many sources suggest that she lived with her uncle Domitian for a time as his wife. </p>JuliaTiti.jpgJulia_Titi32012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435635615122Magnia Urbica1486Magnia_Urbica283285<p>Magnia Urbica probably married Carinus around 283. Her fate is unknown, although she probably died soon after Carinus in 285. </p>MagniaUrbica.jpgMagnia_Urbica82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43568615124Manlia Scantilla10351Manlia_Scantilla193193<p>Manlia Scantilla was wife of the short-termed emperor Didius Julianus. She and their daughter survived his assassination in 193 and buried his body.</p>ManliaScantilla.jpgManlia_Scantilla62012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435635115125Ulpia Marciana5258Ulpia_Marciana112113<p>Ulpia Marciana died AD 114. Trajan awarded her the title Augusta after AD 105, and she was the first sister of an emperor to gain this title. She was very close to the emperor and empress. </p>Marciana.jpgMarciana42012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435625815126Mariniana1266Mariniana253260<p>Egnatia Mariniana was Valerian’s wife and mother of Gallienus and Valerian II. Her coins are all commemorative, so it is likely she died before Valerian became emperor. </p>Mariniana.jpgMariniana82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43566615128Salonina Matidia5259Salonina_Matidia112120<p>Matidia was mother-in-law to Hadrian; her daughter was Vibia Sabina. She was married to a Lucius Vibius Sabinus and later to a Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilio Frugi (?). </p>Matidia.jpgMatidia42012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435625915132Nigrinian14378Nigrinian283285<p>Nigrinian was known to have been a grandson of Carus and possibly the son of Magnia Urbica. Coins were struck in his memory, so it seems that he died in infancy sometime in AD 284. </p>Nigrinian.jpgNigrinian82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435637815133Marcia Otacilia Severa12298Marcia_Otacilia_Severa245249<p>Marcia Otacilia Severa was the wife of Philip I and mother of Philip II. Little is known about her. </p>OtaciliaSevera.jpgOtacilia_Severa82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435629815134Paulina11363Paulina235238<p>Caecilia Paulina probably died before or just after the accession of Maximinus I. All her coins are commemorative. </p>Paulina.jpgPaulina82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435636315135Pescennius Niger10362Pescennius_Niger40174483pescennius_niger193194<p>After the murder of Pertinax, Niger was declared emperor by his troops. He was defeated four times by Severus and executed near the Euphrates in 194.</p>PescenniusNiger.jpgPescennius_Niger62012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435636215136Philip II12299Philip_II247249<p>Marcus Julius Philipus, or Philip II, was given the title Caesar when his father became emperor, and rose to Augustus in 247. He was killed shortly after his father’s death in Macedonia, though sources are unclear whether Philip II was fighting with his father or had remained in Rome.</p>PhilipII.jpgPhilip_II82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435629915137Pompeia Plotina5257Pompeia_Plotina112117<p>Pompeia Plotina was born in Gaul around AD 70. She married Trajan sometime before the death of Nerva, but had no children. She was a model empress, though she supposedly encouraged Hadrian to marry against Trajan’s niece against her husband’s wishes. </p>Plotina.jpgPlotina42012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435625715141Cornelia Salonina1368Cornelia_Salonina253268<p>Cornelia Salonina was Gallienus’ wife and mother of Valerian II and Saloninus. She died in 268, murdered with her husband. </p>Salonina.jpgSalonina82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43566815142Saloninus1270Saloninus5835772258260<p>Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus was the younger son of Gallienus. When his brother, Valerian II, died in 258, Saloninus was given the title Caesar. In 259 he became Augustus but Postumus, the commander of the Rhine legions, put him to death after Postumus’ troops proclaimed him emperor.</p>Saloninus.jpgSaloninus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43567015143Ulpia Severina1374Ulpia_Severina270275<p>Ulpia Severina was the emperor Aurelian’s wife; little is known about her. She became Augusta late in his reign (274), and her coinage continued well after the death of her husband. She probably retired into private life after some sort of interregnum before the reign of Tacitus. </p>Severina.jpgSeverina82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43567415145Silbannacus12367Silbannacus244249<p>Silbannacus is only known from two coins. Theories are that he was a senior officer of Aemilian who was left behind at Rome when the emperor marched north; he attempted to seize power but was very soon defeated, explaining the extreme rarity of his coinage. </p>Silbannacus.jpgSilbannacus82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435636715149Tranquillina12364Tranquillina121663321241244<p>Furia Sabinia Tranquillina was married to the young Gordian III in 241. She was the daughter of the Praetorian Prefect and the marriage further cemented Gordian III’s ties with the group that made him emperor. Her death-date is unknown.</p>Tranquillina.jpgTranquillina82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:435636415153Valerian II1269Valerian_II256258<p>Publius Cornelius Licinius Valerianus was the eldest son of Gallienus. He died two years later. </p>ValerianII.jpgValerian_II82012-06-21 10:32:50562007-08-09 10:51:43566915158Tranquillina364Tranquillina2252440000-00-00 00:00:002013-02-15 15:08:485636415160Maximus Caesar11291Gaius_Julius_Verus_Maximus2352382013-02-15 15:46:525629115164Julia Aquilia Severa285Aquilia_Severa2202202013-08-14 12:04:43562013-02-18 09:09:575628515165Julia Paula284Julia_Cornelia_Paula2192202013-08-14 12:04:43562013-02-18 09:11:445628415166Flavian (uncertain)358Flavian_dynasty69962013-02-18 09:14:185635815167Antonine (uncertain)3611381802013-08-14 12:04:43562013-02-18 09:15:305636115169Civil War (coinage)354Year_of_the_Four_Emperors69692013-02-18 09:24:395635415170Uncertain - 1st/2nd Century AD36011992013-02-18 09:26:215636015173Julio-Claudian (uncertain)127-27682013-08-14 12:04:43562013-02-18 09:37:205612715176Severan (uncertain)130Severan_dynasty1932352013-08-14 12:04:43562013-02-18 09:42:335613015182Uncertain - 1st-mid 3rd century36912502013-08-14 12:04:43562013-02-18 10:05:375636915183Dryantilla374Sulpicia_Dryantilla2602602013-08-14 12:04:43562013-02-18 10:07:345637415184Saturninus377Julius_Saturninus2802802013-02-18 10:09:235637715185Domitius Domitianus380Domitius_Domitianus2972972013-02-18 10:12:075638015192Radiate (uncertain)4762752962013-08-14 12:04:43562013-02-18 10:20:045647615