Our research has produced a great deal of information about Cammeringham and the surrounding area, however, there are still many things that we don’t know.

We cannot be sure about what happened after the end of the Roman era c.AD 410. Lincoln c.11 km away, had been the main urban and civic centre, market for goods and seat of secular authority (Jones 1993, p54; Whitwell 1970, p42).

It has been proposed that with the end of Roman rule and the lack of Roman coinage the Roman towns like Lincoln, which were the centres of civilian and military administration, were abandoned (Cleary 1991, p.123-29; Oosthuizen 2019, p 30). It is, however, now argued that there is evidence that some Romano-British territories remained under the control of the established centres. This may have been the case with the territorium of the Colonia of Lincoln (Lincoln) (Oosthuizen 2019, p 30; Leahy 2010, Green 2020).

While some Roman places were abandoned, others have evidence of continued occupation. The villa, for instance, at Scampton was demolished by the 4th century but other Roman sites have evidence of activity spanning into the late 5th and early 6th century including the rebuilding of the church (St Paul-in-the-Bail) in Lincoln and continued production of wheel-thrown pottery ( Leahy 2010, p.32; Jones 1993, p.25-7; Green 2020, 67). It is, however, not known how far Christianity had spread into the surrounding area or how much control it had over the population outside the town.

What happened to the villas and farmsteads?

Did the farmsteads and villas remain viable and in the same ownership or were they taken over by a new Romano British elite, immigrants, those who had previously been the workers or by Saxon foederati?  It has been suggested that at the end of the Roman era Saxons were employed (foederati ) to defend the country against attackers (Whitwell 1970, p.137). In return for their services, they were given land and there is a hypothesis that Lincolnshire was one area where they settled. This interpretation is based on finds of belt buckles believed to have belonged to the mercenaries (Ibid). Further field work and research using PAS and HER may reveal more evidence.

Was the infrastructure maintained and if so who had control?

It is not known whether Lincoln continued to administer and exert control over the surrounding countryside. Without Roman central control what happened to the infrastructure including the roads?  The fact that the routes in use in the Roman era are still in use today may indicate that they were continued to be used. These include Ermine Street (A15), Middle Street, and Tillbridge Lane which links Ermine Street (A15), Middle Street and the crossing of the Trent at Littleborough (Whitwell 1970, p147). Use of the PAS and HER data may show whether early medieval (early Anglo-Saxon) objects have been found along those routes indicating some forms of activity. 

Were the people buried in the cemetery indigenous or from the continent?

Stable isotopic analysis.

Isotopes are present in various ratios in food and water and are incorporated into bodily tissues and by measuring the ratios in teeth from the burials we may be able to ascertain their diet and where people grew up.

Did the materials from which the grave goods were made originate locally, England or elsewhere?

To answer this the materials would have to be XRF analysed to determine their composition (e.g. copper, bronze, tin, mercury) and subsequently their source.

Were the people buried in good health, in what activities did they engage and what was their diet?

An examination of the skeletons may provide insights into the age and health of the people, the work they did and the type of injuries etc they sustained. Particular types of injuries may be associated with assault or repetitive actions such as lifting heavy loads. Teeth may have been worn down by eating cereals containing grit from grindstones. Bone structure may have been affected by degeneration from disease.  Forensic taphonomy is helping to explain the factors that affect the preservation of the body in the ground, for example, people lose bone mass with increasing age and low bone mass means that the skeleton decays more quickly so they are less likely to be preserved.

Where was the settlement associated with the cemetery?

It is believed that 5th and 6th-century communities were buried in ancestral cemeteries adjacent to or within a few hundred metres from their settlements. They might contain the remains of people from one or more settlements (Hamerow 2014 p.121-2). Did they take over a Romano-British Villa? Some Roman villas and farmsteads were re-purposed for activities associated with farming and industry; others were replaced by aisled halls. Some were the focus for early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries (see discussion in Oosthuizen 2019, p.30 and Whitwell 1970, p144-5). There is a Roman villa approx. 1 ½ km to the South at Scampton and possibly evidence for another approx. 1km to the North at Fillingham (MLI50559)  and another at Ownby Cliff 1 ½ km East of the Fillingham site. Near the latter, an Anglo Saxon ‘small long’ brooch was found (MLI51412). Did the Roman villa at Scampton play a role in the positioning of the cemetery and associated settlement and/or was it due to topographical and geological aspects (e.g. on the limestone ridge, near water)? Was there a villa or farmstead at the present site of Cammeringham or on or near the ridge and was that used in some way by the Saxons?

To date, we have not found any evidence of an early Saxon settlement in the archaeological records relating to Cammeringham. There is some evidence of Romano-British presence, 10th-11th century activity (MLI52102) and in 1086 the Domesday Book records a population of 31 households, putting it in the largest 40% of settlements recorded in Domesday, and is listed as having 2 owners (opendomesday). It is possible that the post-Roman settlement was on the site of the present village and demolished in the medieval-modern period.

The search could be extended from paper research to physical investigation involving field walking, metal detecting, test pits, geophysics and examination of any objects found by the current villagers of Cammeringham.

What did the landscape look like and how was it used? Was the area water meadow, arable, heath, woodland? What were the farming practices, what type of livestock was kept? Were the rivers used as a food resource? What course did the rivers take? What were the advantages of settling in this locality?

After the end of the Roman period in England, there was no longer the need for intensive farming and the focus on cereal production to supply the army and urban populations. Also, a decline in the number of workers associated with villas would have meant that intensive farming wasn’t sustainable. (Hamerow 2014, p145). 

Climate change may also have caused a change in farming (Banham and Faith 2014, p.4). There was scope for flexibility in the type of farming and farmers could reduce arable production and increase animal stocks. This may have resulted in both the owners and the labour force being better off. Paleoenvironmental studies indicate continuity of farming rather than land reverting to scrub and woodland (Oosthuizen 2019, p.29). It seems, apart from discontinuing the use of emmer and cash crops such as grapes and lentils, the crops grown differed little from Roman times (Hamerow 2014, 146).  Did the area around Cammeringham follow these trends of farming and land use?  

The questions might be answered in part by the analysis of any bones and soil samples obtained during the test pitting mentioned above and perhaps some sampling of soils from the areas which may have been water meadows and sheep grazing. The soil samples may contain pollen, seeds and faunal remains which may indicate crops, animals, vegetation, or the type of land, eg. flood meadows, heath, woodland etc. A comparative study with early Saxon parishes in Eastern England, that have been studied, may answer some questions.

An examination of old maps might reveal old parish boundaries and place names. Place names may indicate the type of land or vegetation if, for example, they contain words that mean wood, heath, scrub, meadow, pasture etc. The natural flora may indicate areas of ancient woodland.

The course of rivers change over time and have sometimes been managed into their current channels. Lidar maps may show ancient river channels.

The historical archives may hold maps and terrier reports which may provide information about field names, land use and fishing and wildfowling rights.

What household goods and personal items did the people have? Where were the people obtaining goods and materials? Were they manufacturing or processing materials in the area? What accessories were they wearing?  What type of games did they play and what crafts did they pursue?

These questions might be answered by the discovery of items through field walking, test pits and examination of any finds found by the local inhabitants. Items might include pottery, combs, brooches, loom weights, buckles, quern stones, iron and slag.

Were the people trading along the rivers?

This may involve an examination of geological records and aerial photography to map the previous routes of rivers. The settlement is within easy reach, via the Roman road, to the river Trent at Littleborough. The Trent was an important arterial route linking the East Midlands to the Humber and North Sea. During Roman times there was a small town on the Trent at Littleborough. An examination of records relating to the ferry crossing area may indicate that Saxons were using that crossing. The fact that the road to the ferry was maintained into modern times may indicate continued use during the Saxon period. Reviewing land trackways and roads might help understand the wider picture of transportation and communication routes.

PAS and HER data may show the distribution of Anglo Saxon finds along the Trent and in the vicinity of the nearest ferry crossing at Littleborough.

Where was the Moot Place?

It may not be possible to answer some questions such as the site of the moot place. 

How does the study area relate to the remainder of the area around Lincoln?

We have looked at the archaeology and history of a linear geographical area to the North West of Lincoln which contains the mixed rite cemetery at Cammeringham. Is that cemetery the closest to Lincoln with evidence for early cremation? Were there other Anglo-Saxon sites of the same era around the city of Lincoln?  Was a secular or religious authority in Lincoln maintaining control over the countryside and preventing or discouraging Anglo-Saxon activity?

The PAS, HER  mapping and other databases and archives can be used to search for evidence of other settlements or cemeteries and establish whether they were at a similar distance from Lincoln.

Bibliography

Banham, D, Faith, R, (2014) Anglo-Saxon Farms and Farming. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.

Cleary, E, (1991). Ending of Roman Britain. London, B.T. Batsford.

Green, C. (2020). Britons and Anglo -Saxons, 2nd Edition, England, History of Lincolnshire Committee.

Hamerow, H. (2014). Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England, 2014, England, Oxford University Press.

HER: MLI50559 Lincolnshire Heritage Explorer- SITE OF ROMAN BUILDING, MIDDLE STREET  Bibliographic Reference: Scott, Eleanor. 1993. A Gazetteer of Roman Villas in Britain. 

HER: MLI51412 – Anglo-Saxon ‘Small Long’ Brooch, Owmby Cliff Farm.

Jones, M.J., (2002). Roman Lincoln, Conquest Colony and Capital. The History Press; 1st edition.

Jones, M.J., (1993). The Latter Days of Roman Lincoln in Vince (ed.), Pre-Viking Lindsey, Lincoln, p.14-28.

Leahy, K., (2010). The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Lindsey. History Press.

Oosthuizen, S. (2019). The Emergence of the English. ARC, Amsterdam University Press.

Whitwell, J. B. (1970). Roman Lincolnshire. Lincoln, History of Lincoln Committee.
https://opendomesday.org/place/SK9482/cammeringham/ [accessed 2021-05-15]