Written by Peter Carey, Treasure Finds Liaison Assistant for the West Midlands
At the Portable Antiquities Scheme, working with the general public remains one of the most central and defining elements of the service. Without the collaboration between our staff and finders, self-recorders and volunteers, the important work which we do could not happen. The vast majority of the small archaeological finds we process are handed in by metal detectorists, who, come rain or shine, are tirelessly searching in a manner archaeological teams would never have the time or resources to do. This provides us with a continual, ever-growing body of data which sheds light on previously unknown sites, allows us to build up distribution patterns of objects and better shed light on our collective archaeological heritage, to name a few of the many benefits.
However, every so often archaeology is chanced upon by people who aren’t necessarily looking for it. These moments are of particular interest to me, as they represent a personal element to the experience of finding something, a chain of chance occurrences which lead to somebody forming a connection with people who are separated by centuries, sometimes millennia. It may be a builder who uncovers earthworks on a site, a fisherman who dredges a spearhead from a river or even a dog walker, who notices pottery coming from a recently dug badger hole. For me, it was accidentally uncovering a Victorian clay pipe bowl from a flower bed in my garden as a child which catapulted me into the world of archaeology and being interested in what lay beneath our feet. These finds connect us to history in a physical, emotive sense, igniting an interest which may not have happened otherwise.
It was for this reason that I was tremendously excited when my colleague Clara, Finds Liaison Officer for Herefordshire & Shropshire, informed me that Jenny, a 7 year-old schoolgirl from Ludlow, and her parents had made an appointment to meet our team and hand in a coin she had found in early 2022 in a bank near the recently constructed school playground. From sitting down and speaking to Jenny and her parents, it was immediately obvious she had a curious and inquisitive young mind, and it was a privilege to watch her excitement when we confirmed she had found something made almost 1700 years ago. She had picked up the coin, a Roman nummus from the house of Constantine (AD 307–361) from amongst some similar sized pebbles at the bottom of a bank, having noticed it was different. She recognized it was a coin from the bust on the obverse, and brought it back to show her parents, who endeavored to have it identified. The patina and wear of the coin suggest it has not been lost from a contemporary coin collection, rather it has likely been disturbed by the recent building work on the site. The Roman activity in the area confirms this likelihood.
HESH-7DC5F2 An incomplete copper alloy Roman nummus of the House of Constantine (AD 307-361), dating to the period AD 330-337 (Reece Period 17). Found by Jenny in 2022. Image credits: Birmingham Museums Trust.
Jenny was kind enough to trust us with her find, leaving it in our possession so we could record it. We see a lot of Roman coins here at the PAS and it’s always a privilege when their finders give us opportunity to handle and record them, something we never take for granted. However, to work on a piece which has been found in such a unique manner, with an incredible story attached to it has been truly special. It makes me proud to be part of an organisation which offers the resources for people to not only find out more about the artefacts they uncover, but also become part of the wider picture and contribute to greater historical understanding. When Jenny returns with her parents to collect the coin, they’ve informed us she’ll be bringing in some pottery sherds she’s also found for us to identify. We sincerely hope Jenny retains her sharp eyes and enthusiasm for history and the world around her and brings us more wonderful objects to record in the future.
Jenny signing her first entry form. Image credits: Mark Jones.
Written by Alyson Tanner, Finds Liaison Assistant for Wiltshire
Looking north from Coombe Bissett Down
One of the pleasures of working for the PAS is seeing the patterns that develop in the landscape from the finds brought into us for identification and recording on the database. I work for the PAS at Salisbury Museum and a few years ago, the then Finds Liaison Officer noticed a site high on Coombe Bissett Down where detectorists had found over 400 Roman coins scattered across a single field but with no focal point suggesting a hoard. I decided to explore the site for my Masters’ dissertation.
The evidence from aerial photographs and geophysical surveys showed that high on the downland in the area around the coin field, numerous large pits had been dug. At some stage, some of those pits had been surrounded by a substantial sixty meters square enclosure which was centred on the very top of the hill. The pits suggested Iron Age grain storage and the straight sides of the enclosure hinted at Roman influence. But what was happening there?
In the sweltering heat of August 2022, Dr David Roberts from Cardiff University and I co-directed a major excavation of part of the large square enclosure and some of the pits as well as other features in the landscape. David brought Cardiff University students and we were also supported by volunteers from the Archaeology Field Group based at the Wiltshire Museum in Devizes as well as a team led by Dr Denise Wilding who processed the finds from the site.
The bell-shaped grain storage pits were illuminating and in addition to grain, they contained small rodents, birds and other objects, some deliberately placed and some like the rodents who probably fell in and could not get out. One pit appeared to have been the foundation pit for the site and contained red deer antler, articulated animal remains and charcoal from trees which did not appear to be local to the hilltop and may have been brought by other communities attending the inauguration of the grain processing site. At the bottom of the pit was a late Iron Age brooch dating to 100-50BC.
The square enclosure was substantial, comprising a ditch and bank with a palisade along the top as well as evidence from post holes suggesting a large and dramatic entrance. At the bottom of each of the ditch termini next to the entrance, we found a late fourth century Roman coin.
Our initial interpretation is that in the late fourth century as the Roman Empire, riven by conflict, was drawing to an end, a decision was made to protect the precious grain supply from Coombe Bissett and a team was pressed into action to construct the square enclosure. However, the evidence suggests that the venture did not last long and the ditch rapidly refilled. The people on the hill simply returned to their earlier way of life – farming, processing grain and making beer! All of this discovered from finds brought into the PAS.
There is currently a small exhibition about the excavation on display at Salisbury Museum which will be moving to the Wiltshire Museum at Devizes after the summer.
On Saturday 22 July at 3pm, Alix Smith and I will be talking about the Story of Coombe Bissett Down through its Finds at the Festival of Archaeology at Salisbury Museum. It would be great if you could join us.
Drone shot of the main trench with south at the top of the image. On the left, the ditch fill of the large square enclosure is evident, to centre right are grain pits and above those is evidence of the only structure uncovered. (Image Mike McQueen).
There are several defining features of Santa Claus, a large pot belly, a soft red suit with fluffy white trimming, big black boots. However, the most iconic of all is his ample white beard. Facial hair has a long history, reflected in the abundance of whiskers on the PAS database. To get in the festive sprit, we’ve collected some of our most impressive moustachioed finds.
An assemblage of four Roman objects dating to c.AD 43-410. Found in Ryedale and documented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme. YORYM-870B0E. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
For the Romans, a neatly groomed beard was maintained by barbers (tonsor) who cut hair, shaved beards, trimmed nails and removed body hair. A wild beard could also indicate psychological crisis. Augustus is said to have left his beard to grow for months following the loss of his legions in Germany. This impressively bearded bust dates from AD 43-410 was found in Ryedale (YORYM-870B0E). Dr John Pearce, Senior Lecturer in Archaeology at King’s College London, suggests that this bust was likely mounted on a sceptre. The face and hair resemble depictions of the Antonine emperors. This Roman mount and strap fitting sports considerably wilder facial hair (SUR-2DFE62). Found in Nottinghamshire, this object likely depicts Silenus, leader of the satyrs.
A cast copper alloy anthropomorphic Roman mount or strap fitting dating to the 2nd century AD. Found in Nottinghamshire and documented by Surrey County Council. SUR-2DFE62. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
The Vikings were famously hairy people. Having a beard may have indicated rank and status. The beard of one Viking leader was so notable, it appears in his name – Svein Forkbeard. Grooming implements found in gravesites indicates that the Vikings would have valued cleanliness. This unique Viking silver filigree pendant from AD 900-950 was found in North Yorkshire (NLM-BEA142). It depicts a man with a neatly groomed pointed beard. Similarly, this early Medieval cast copper alloy strap fitting or mount has a striking arrow-like beard in the Anglo-Scandinavian style (HAMP-50F2A1).
Viking silver filigree pendant with the shape of a bearded face from AD 900-950. Found in North Yorkshire and documented by North Lincolnshire Museum. NLM-BEA142. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.Early Medieval cast copper alloy anthropomorphic strap fitting or mount from AD 1000-1100. Found in Winchester and documented with the Portable Antiquities Scheme. HAMP-50F2A1. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
Beards had fluctuating connotations in the medieval period. Facial hair is regularly mentioned in early monotheistic religious texts. Jesus is commonly depicted with a beard, as are his Apostles, such as Paul on this Medieval coin (LEIC-6FE669). However, from the 1100s, the Church had passed a ban on beards for monks and priests. A smooth face became associated with purity and celibacy in the Christian world.
Incomplete Medieval cast lead or lead alloy circular papal bulla (AD 1316 – 1334). Found in Lincolnshire and documented by the Derby Museums Trust. LEIC-6FE669. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
Beards in the Tudor and Elizabethan period were strongly associated with masculinity and was considered central to male identity. As Dr Eleanor Rycroft explains, beards were a visual indicator of virility and a man’s ability to produce heirs. In this period, the male body was understood to be hot and dry. As a man matured, he was thought to heat up and produce smoke, which would push out beard hairs. If a man could not grow a beard, he would be considered a boy. It may therefore not be surprising to note the careful depiction of facial hair on this silver halfgroat of Henry VIII (BH-4314E1). Find out more by listening to this excellent podcast episode with Dr Rycroft, hosted by Professor Suzannah Lipscomb.
A clipped Post-Medieval silver halfgroat of Henry VIII (1509-1547) dating 1544-1547. Found in Northamptonshire and documented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme. BH-4314E1. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
London experienced a beard boom in the Victorian period. Beards were worn by soldiers, who had returned from the freezing battlelines of the Crimean War fully whiskered. Charles Dickens famously sported his doorknocker beard, imitated the world over. This lead figurine of a helmeted man sports a full and fluffy Victorian moustache and beard. He is believed to be either a policeman or fireman – the masculine status of both professions denoted by his facial hair (SWYOR-6B34A1).
A solid lead figurine, perhaps a toy, in the form of a helmeted face, perhaps a policeman or fireman. Found in East Riding of Yorkshire and documented by the West Yorkshire Archaeology Advisory Service. SWYOR-6B34A1. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
Our ‘modern’ image of Santa was consolidated by the Victorians. In England, Father Christmas was understood to be a fun-loving old man, who personified Christmas cheer. In Europe, St Nicholas was believed to leave gifts for good children, while his foil Krampus would punish those who were naughty. While our Santa looks very different from his earlier iterations, the snowy white beard remains. Happy Holidays from everyone at the Portable Antiquities Scheme!
Calling all stargazers, it’s World Space Week! Here on the PAS County Pages blog, we’ve been shooting through the database to find some stellar objects. Observations of the night sky have been made throughout human history. The stars have been used to situate our lives – in time by calendars, navigationally on earth, and within the universe.
The astrolabe is an early piece of astronomical technology. Derived from the Greek astro labos (star-taker), astrolabes allow the user to determine the position of the stars, moon, and planets. This data is used to solve a myriad of problems. One 10th century astronomer claimed that there were a thousand uses for an astrolabe. These included – locating the direction of Mecca, calculating the time to raise taxes, predicting tides, and even measuring the hight of a building.
Medieval astrolabe made in England in AD 1326. 1909,0617.1. Image courtesy of the British Museum. Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum, Creative Commons.
This astrolabe produced in 1326 gives you an idea of what this Medieval astrolabe plate found in Norfolk (NMS-D40DC2) may have originally looked like. The central perforation and broken pointer suggest that there was an openwork frame or plate, which could be turned on the central pin. The inscriptions on the outer edge may have corresponded to times, dates, or phenomena. The user would have adjusted the astrolabe according to astronomical bodies, to reveal certain information.
Incomplete Medieval/Post Medieval astrolabe, dating from between AD 1066-1700. Found in Norfolk and documented by the Norfolk County Council. NMS-D40DC2. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
Check out this excellent Curator’s Corner video by BM curator William Greenwood, to learn how astrolabes function.
You can even try making your own astrolabe. While you may not be throwing away your smartphone any time soon, you might be surprised how much information you can gather using just the stars. This handy flatpack astrolabe kit produced by St John’s College Cambridge is a great way to get the whole family involved.
The stars and religion have been intimately connected for millennia. This unassuming figurine has a rich and complicated relationship with the night sky (NMGW-0322B4).
Romano-Celtic bronze figurine, possibly dating from the late Iron Age to the Early Roman period. 100 BC – AD 200. Found in Swansea and documented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme. NMGW-0322B4. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
The figurine dates from the late Iron Age to Early Roman period. It was found in a secluded corner of Wales, in the Culver Hole Cave. The figurine’s style and resemblance to other Iron Age Gallic shrine imagery suggests that it was made locally, by the British/Gallic people. Furthermore, it’s distinctive crescent-shaped headdress suggests some kind of lunar symbolism.
Celtic religion was well documented by Julius Caesar, who invaded Britain twice in 55 and 54 BC. He commented that the Gauls understood time by nights rather than days. Pliny the Elder also describes Druidic reverence of the sickle moon. The cave and this figurine potentially could have held some lunar or religious symbolism for pre-Roman Britons.
This World Space Week, take a look up into the heavens. You’ll be looking at the same stars our ancestors once measured, gazed up at, and maybe even worshipped.
This week, our spotlight is on the small but historically mighty Avon. This area encompasses the City of Bristol, as well as northern parts of Somerset. The river Avon and its luscious surrounding areas have attracted human habitation for thousands of years. For example, this fantastic Middle Bronze Age hoard (GLO-6535E4) was found in the parish of Dundry, and is now on display at the Bristol City Museum & Art Gallery.
Hoard of objects dating from between 1300-1000 BC. GLO-6535E4. Found in North Somerset and documented by Bristol City Council. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
In the Iron Age, hillforts began to appear around the Avon Gorge. Take a look at some of these glimmering Iron Age coins found in the Avon area. You can find out more about Celtic coinage at the Oxford University Celtic Coin Index website.
Iron Age Celtic coin. CCI-610042. Found in the City of Bristol and documented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme and Oxford University. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.Iron Age Celtic coin. CCI-66027. Found in Bath and North East Somerset and documented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme and Oxford University. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.Iron Age Celtic coin. CCI-800007. Found in Bath and North East Somerset and documented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme and Oxford University. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA. Iron Age Celtic coin. CCI-820037. Found in Bath and North East Somerset and documented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme and Oxford University. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
The Bristol area was also occupied by the Romans. These two objects unearthed near Avon betray a certain Roman sensibility. The first is of the mythological beast Capricornus. Half goat half fish, this finely decorated figurine uses its hoofs to paddle through the water (SWYOR-29B362). The second is a somewhat NSFW knife handle of two lovers (GLO-481969). You can still visit Kings Weston Roman Villa, the only bath suite in Bristol and home to a fantastic mosaic floor.
A cast copper alloy, probably Roman figurine of a Capricornus, dating between AD 43-410. SWYOR-29B362. Found in North Somerset and documented by the West Yorkshire Archaeology Advisory Service. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA. A Roman folding knife, the cast copper-alloy handle of which is an erotic scene. Found in North Somerset and documented by the Bristol City Council. GLO-481969. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
In the Medieval period, a mysterious mythology surrounding the Avon Gorge emerged. It was said that long ago, two giants called Vincent and Goram were competing to drain a lake. They had fallen in love with Avona, a girl from Wiltshire. Goram began to dig Hazel Brook Gorge, but fell asleep after too much beer. Meanwhile, Vincent finished Avon Gorge and drained the lake, winning Avona’s heart. Infuriated, Goram threw himself into the Bristol channel and turned to stone. You can still see his head and shoulder in the water, now known as the islands of Flat Holm and Steep Holm. While we’ve not found any archaeological evidence of Vincent and Goram’s labours (yet), these gorgeous Medieval gold rings – one in an abstract heart shape and the other set with a green gem – could have once been love tokens.
A complete Medieval gold ‘stirrup’ finger-ring dating between AD 1200-1300. Found in North Somerset and documented by Somerset City Council. SOM-84A403. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.An incomplete silver gilt finger ring dating between AD 1400-1550. Found in North Somerset and documented by Somerset City Council. SOM-FE5673. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
We hope you’ve enjoyed this little gander through early Avon. There’s much more to see on our database – check out the post-Medieval period if you’re interested in Bristol’s significant maritime history. If you’re in the area and have a find to report, you can contact our wonderful Finds Liaison Officer for Gloucestershire and Avon, Kurt Adams. kurt.adams@bristol.gov.uk.
Hello again readers of the PAS blog. In preparation for the blog post this month, I began my usual trawl through the database. A certain class of objects struck me immediately. Keys are something we all have rattling around – they hang off lanyards and on novelty keychains, in jumbles of bronze and silver. The banality of the key disguises its significance and longevity.
The fact is, keys have been carried for centuries. Then as now, keys would have been turned and jammed, fumbled with in the dark after a night at the pub, dropped and lost. The rattle of keys is a lived experience which traverses time.
The following examples from Roman and Medieval Britain illustrate the diversity of key design. While the doors may be long gone, the keys survive.
Keys unlock more than just doors, this framed miniature shows the God of Love locking the Lover’s heart with a large gold key. Guillaume de Lorris, continued by Jean de Meun, Roman de la Rose, published in France c.1380. Image courtesy of the British Library, Creative Commons.
The Romans are attributed with inventing the metal key and lock mechanism. While wooden locks and keys were used in the ancient Near East, these could deteriorate over time and be easily forced open. The Romans created ‘warded’ locks. A series of projections (wards) inside the lock corresponded to a key with matching slots. Any other key would not turn inside a warded lock.
These examples from Wiltshire (WILT-C592D7) and Lincolnshire (LIN-CA7623) are Roman ‘finger keys.’ These key-rings usually unlocked small chests containing personal or valuable possessions. Keys could also be status objects, with highly decorated handles and shafts.
A fashionable and functional copper alloy ‘finger-key’ for a warded lock (AD 200-410). Found in Wiltshire by a metal-detectorist and documented by the Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum. WILT-C592D7. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.Key to keeping your possessions safe, this cast copper alloy ‘finger-key’ would have been worn (AD 250-300). Found in Lincolnshire by a metal-detectorist and documented by the Lincolnshire County Council. LIN-CA7623. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
Keys could also be status objects, with highly decorated handles and shafts. This zoomorphic key handle from Nottinghamshire is a fierce example (SWYOR-F1D5D6). The elaborate decoration is both an opulent accessory and subtle warning, intruders keep away from those claws!
Flashy keys like this cast copper alloy example indicates status (AD 43-400). The key handle depicts a lion attacking a ram. Found in Nottinghamshire and documented by the West Yorkshire Archaeology Service. SWYOR-F1D5D6. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
In Medieval Britain, keys were a common technology. Door locks and keys were affordable, due to the quality of iron used to produce them. In 1422, a guild of “lockyers” is listed as active in London. If you look closely at this 1451 illumination of a locksmith, you can spot a range of toothed keys, much like the following iron example found in London (PUBLIC-55E9E8).
A German locksmith hammering out keys. Hans Schelhamer, Amb. 317.2 Folio 72 verso (Mendel I), published in Germany in 1451. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain.Medieval iron key circa AD 1200-1300. Found in London and documented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme. PUBLIC-55E9E8. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
Keys also acquired a symbolic significance in this period. This illumination of Jesus handing a key to Peter could represent the path to heavenly salvation. This key found in Warwickshire features similar religious connotations, with an incised and openwork cross incorporated into the design (WAW-E49DD4).
Jesus giving Peter the “keys to the kingdom of heaven,” (Matthew 16:19) in the margin of sheet music. Gerwich, W.754 Two leaves from an Antiphonaryfol. W.754Br, published in 1310. Image courtesy of Digitised Walters Manuscripts, Creative Commons. Medieval copper alloy key circa AD 1150-1450 featuring two crosses. Could this have opened a church door? Found in Warwickshire and documented by the Birmingham Museums Trust. WAW-E49DD4. Medieval iron key circa AD 1200-1300. Copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, License: CC-BY-SA.
You can find more keys, of all shapes and sizes, on the PAS database. It’s essential that finds are reported to your local FLO. By adding your finds to the PAS database and making them accessible to all, you are contributing to the rich story of British history.
Welcome to another edition of Coin Relief. In this issue, Sam Moorhead examines the coinage of the two Maxes: Maximinus I, a man who was max by name and by nature, and his son Maximus.
The coinage of Maximinus I and Maximus (AD 235-8)
Maximinus was a giant Thracian (Scriptores Historiae Augustae tells us that he was 8ft 6ins!) from humble origins who worked his way up through the ranks to become a general under Severus Alexander (AD 222-235). Maximinus’ lowly background was to hinder him throughout his reign as the Senate and other aristocratic Romans resented his rise to power. After Severus Alexander’s rather pathetic attempts to deal with German unrest in AD 235, the troops declared Maximinus emperor and Severus Alexander and his mother, Julia Mamaea, were both murdered. When Maximinus made his son, Maximus, Caesar is unclear, but it was in AD 235 or 236. Maximinus went on to win victories on the Rhine (for which he and his son received the title Germanicus Maximus) and Danube borders which he strengthened. However, this was at great human and financial cost and wealthy Romans began to tire of increased extortion and confiscations.
In early 238, the first resistance to Maximinus came from the Gordiani (Gordian I and II) in North Africa, with senatorial support, but this was short-lived. In Rome, Balbinus and Pupienus, elderly senators, were then declared joint emperors; however, they were forced to call for the grandson of Gordian I from Africa, who was favoured by the people of Rome and the Praetorian Guard. Maximinus, meanwhile, had begun to march west against Italy. However, Aquileia refused to open its gates to the emperor and he gradually lost the support of his men until he and his son were assassinated in June 238. Balbinus and Pupienus were murdered a month later, leaving Gordian III (AD 238-44) sole emperor.
The coinage of Maximinus
The coinage of Maximinus is quite straightforward. It was all minted in Rome, with gold, silver and base metal issues. There are two major issues, differentiated by the obverse legends IMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG (AD 235-6) and MAXIMIANVS PIVS AVG GERM (AD 236-7). RIC IV, pt 2, divides his coinage according to these legends. However, BMC VI goes further in dividing the IMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG issue into two, an earlier AD 235 issue, and a later AD 236 issue. The determining factor is the style of Maximinus’ portrait. The earlier issue has a portrait based upon that of Severus Alexander, the latter issue has the more pronounced jaw and rugged features of Maximinus. In editing the PAS Database and writing this piece, the divisions of BMC are applied where portraits are clearly visible. It also needs to be noted that BMC only dates the second issue to AD 235-7. Dated coins of AD 238 are rarer and it is thought that the mint at Rome would have ceased minting coins for Maximinus very early in AD 238 when talk of rebellion began under Gordian I and II.
The silver radiate (sometime called the antoninianus) was re-introduced under Balbinus and Pupienus and became the dominant silver denomination in the reign of Gordian III. It is in the reign of Maximinus that the denarius has its last gasp as the sole silver denomination.
There are about 135 coins of Maximinus on the PAS Database. There are 85 denarii (which includes 5 or more contemporary copies), 35 sestertii, 3 dupondii, 6 asses (including one limesfalsum copy) and 6 dupondii or asses. All of the coins have been edited so it is possible to present some quite solid statistics. Firstly, it is worth noting that 85 denarii make up 63% of the coins and the 50 base metal coins 37%. This does show an increasing proportion of base metal coins than we have seen earlier in the Third Century when it was much lower – base metal coins made up only 2.2% of coins of Elagabalus (see DCR 68).3 Of course, the proportion would rise even higher if one included the coins of Maximus as all his pieces on the PAS Database are of base metal issues.
It is possible to look more closely at the denarii. In BMC VI (p. 88), there is a breakdown of numbers of coins for different types from six coin hoards from across the Empire. In Table 1, it has been adapted with the addition of coins from the Cunetio hoard, figures for three British hoards and the PAS totals. It is clear from this tabulation that the AD 235-6 denarii were struck in the largest numbers with 72 to 82% of the coins in the three groups coming from these issues. The PAS group actually has the largest proportion with 81.7% which is close to the 78.2% for the six hoards, but considerably higher than the 72.1% for the three British hoards. All the groups have around 8 to 9% for the miscellaneous AD 236 issues (which include coins of Maximus and Paulina). For the AD 236-7 issues, the three British hoards have the highest proportion with 19.3%; the six hoards (13.03%) and the PAS (9.8%) are more comparable. What is clear from Table 1 is that the silver denarii of AD 235-6 were struck in the largest numbers. There is a considerable decline in AD 236-7 and very few dated coins for AD 238. This dearth of AD 238 dated pieces is the reason why Robert Carson, in BMC VI, dated the last major issue to AD 236-7.
For base-metal coins there is not the same comparanda, but it is important to tabulate the PAS finds nevertheless (Table 2). In contrast to the silver denarii, there actually is a slightly higher proportion of base metal coins on the PAS Database for the period AD 236-7 (53.5%) than the period 235-6 (46.3%). Why is this the case? It could be to do with supply to Britain, the apparent dearth of silver in the period AD 236-7 being made up for with more base metal coinage. But I do wonder whether this is not an Empire-wide phenomenon. We know that Maximinus’ campaigns on the Rhine and Danube frontiers were very costly and that there was increasing resistance from the general population to Maximinus’ heavy handed means of raising funds. It might just be that the decline in the silver coinage represents an increasing shortage of silver and that the imperial treasury had to resort to striking more base metal coins to pay off its debts. This requires much more analysis across the empire; however, the PAS data have led the way for someone to pursue this research in the future.
Dated Coins
Maximinus struck dated coins throughout his reign, although they are scarce as finds in Britain. The PAS Database has dated four dated denarii for AD 235 and AD 236; the IARCW (Welsh data) has one for AD 236 and one for AD 237. There are no dated base metal coins.
Silver denarius of Maximinus I, Rome, AD 236. Record ID is HAMP-B68E15 (copyright: Winchester Museums Service, License: CC-BY-SA).
AD 235: IMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG with early portrait
These coins are distinguished by an earlier portrait of Maximinus, based upon that of Severus Alexander. We can assume that the die-engravers were not familiar with the looks of Maximinus and were awaiting official busts of the emperor to be sent from the frontier. These coins are much scarcer than those of the next issue with only 5 out of the 38 AD 235-6 denarii bearing the early portrait.
Silver denarius of Maximinus I featuring the early portrait. Record ID is SUR-2C020F (copyright: Surrey County Council, license: CC-BY).
AD 236: IMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG with later portrait
This is undoubtedly the best represented issue of Maximinus I amongst British finds, with 33 specimens on the PAS Database. The 33 denarii come from five common types: FIDES MILITVM, PAX AVGVSTI, PROVIDENTIA AVG (Fig. 10), SALVS AVGVSTI (Fig. 11) and VICTORIA AVG. There are 14 sestertii from four of the same types: FIDES MILITVM S C, PAX AVGVSTI S C, PROVIDENTIA AVG S C and SALVS AVGVSTI S C. This clearly shows how these were the dominant reverse types for this issue. There is a solitary dupondius for VICTORIA AVG S C. Finally, there are three definite asses, two for PAX AVGVSTI S C and one for VICTORIA AVG, S C.
Silver denarius of Maximinus I with later portrait. Record ID is LEIC-2228A4 (license: CC-BY-SA).
AD 236-7: MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG GERM
Denarii of this issue are much rarer as finds in Britain than the AD 235-6 issues, with only three pieces recorded on the Database. However, there are almost as many base metal coins as in the AD 236 issue, with 11 sestertii and one dupondius. This suggests that there was either a reduction in the output of denarii of this issue and / or a reduction in the numbers imported to Britain. However, there does not seem to have been a significant change in the output and / or import of base metal coins.
Silver denarius of Maximinus I with GERM legend. Record ID is DUR-6359E1 (copyright: Portable Antiquities Scheme, license: CC-BY).
The coinage Maximus
As noted above, it is not clear when Maximus was made Caesar, but his issues are generally dated to AD 235 to 237, alongside those of his father. There are 16 coins of Maximus on the PAS Database, of which 5 are sestertii and 11 are asses (including two limesfalsa copies). His silver coinage is very rare, explaining the lack of pieces on the Database. Again, there are two major issues dependent on obverse legends: C IVL VERVS MAXIMVS CAES (AD 235-6) and MAXIMVS CAES GERM (AD 236-7) (Fig. 28). On all coins, Maximus is always shown bare-headed, although he shares a similar profile to his father.
Copper-alloy sestertius of Maximus, Rome, AD 236-7. Note the bare-headed portrait. Record ID is WILT-25E185 (copyright: Salisbury & South Wiltshire Museum, License: CC-BY).
Coins struck for Diva Paulina
From the style of the coin, it is assumed that Paulina was the wife of Maximinus, but we do not know for certain. Her coins are rare and there are only two on the database. It is possible that one is a cast copy and sadly the other has no image attached to the record. There is also a piece of DIVA PAVLINA with the reverse CONSECRATIO, Paulina seated on a peacock flying right (RIC 2) on the PAS Database, but without an image (KENT575).
Contemporary Copies
As is common in the first half of the Third Century, there are a number of contemporary copies of Maximinus and Maximus on the Database. For Maximinus, there are five or more plated copies of denarii and one cast copy of an as (a limesfalsum). For Maximus, there are two probable limesfalsa of asses. It is possible that the coin of Diva Paulina, discussed above, is also a copy.
Contemporary copies of coins of Maximus. On the left is a silver-plated copy of a denarius (CAM-FEB022, Cambridgeshire County Council, license CC-BY), whilst on the right is a copper-alloy cast copy of an As (NMS-E69F5C, Norfolk Museums Service, License CC-BY).
References and further reading:
The main sources for Maximinus I are Herodian and Scriptores Historiae Augustae. The most accessible summary of his reign is in C. Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors (1995).
G. C. Boon, ‘Light-weights and Limesfalsa’, Numismatic Chronicle (6th Series, Vol V) 1965, pp. 161-174;
G. C. Boon, ‘Counterfiet Coins in Roman Britain’, in P. J. Casey and R. Reece (eds), Coins and the Archaeologist (Seaby, 1988), pp. 124-5.
M. Pfisterer ‘Limesfalsa und Eisenmunzen – Romisches Ersatzkleingeld am Donaulimes’ in Alram and Schmidt-Dick (eds.), Numismata Carnuntina: Forschungen und Material (2007), pp. 643-875.
Welcome to the latest edition of Coin Relief. In this issue, Andrew Brown looks at the coinage of Rome’s first emperor, Augustus.
Augustus, c.27 BC to AD 14
In September 31 BC, Gaius Octavius (Octavian) was victorious at the Battle of Actium and gained undisputed control over the Roman Republic. Octavian was the great-nephew of Julius Caesar through Caesar’s sister, Julia, and rose first in the military ranks under Caesar before taking the political reins in 43 BC when he became consul for the first time. As the Republic unravelled and conflict grew with Mark Antony, Octavian secured his position in part by drawing on very obvious familial links to the deified Caesar, and also by pointing out to the senate the obvious, treasonable, actions of Mark Antony and his relationship with Cleopatra.
Although Actium brought Octavian power, it also resulted in instability with the senate clearly not wanting another dictator. In January 27 BC, Octavian, with his new title ‘Augustus’ (sacred or revered), went through the show of giving his powers back to the senate and people of Rome, but the uproar that ensued resulted in him maintaining his imperium over the provinces and the legions as well as adopting the title Princeps (‘first citizen’). This ‘First Settlement’ essentially established the Principate, the first period of the Roman Empire with Augustus as its emperor.
Further political change came in 23BC with a Second Settlement when an ill Augustus dropped the power of consul and was instead granted Tribunician powers for life, which he held 37 times in total before his death in AD 14. This was a period of rebuilding within the new empire and not just politically. Extensive building and administrative works were carried out in Rome that also saw the emergence of a cult of Rome and Augustus that spread beyond the confines of Rome itself.
Augustus’ military campaigns saw the empire expand its control east as far as Spain and west into the provinces of Africa and Syrian, and notably against the Parthians. His victories and military honours are well documented, notably on the Res Gestae (‘The Deeds of the Divine Augustus’). This was Augustus’ own account of his life and achievements written just prior to his death and a version of this text survives on the cella wall of the Temple of Augustus and Rome (the Monumentum Ancyranum) in Ankara, Turkey. Indeed, he was acclaimed Imperator 21 times during his lifetime, albeit with the odd notable defeat along the way – in particular, Teutoburg in AD 9 when the Roman legions were resoundingly defeated by the Germanic forces of Arminius of the Cherusci.
The Monumentum Ancyranum with the minaretof the Ottoman Haci Bayrum Mosque visible behind (image copyright: Andrew Brown).
Through his daughter Julia and her second husband Agrippa, Augustus attempted to preserve the Julian line with succession intended to go to his grandsons Gaius and Lucius who he adopted as sons and heirs. However, both died as young men, passing away before their grandfather – Lucius, in AD 2, after a sudden illness while at Massalia (Marseille) en route to complete his military training, and Gaius, in AD 4, who had retired from public life after being wounded on campaign in the east. Succession now shifted to Tiberius, Augustus’ stepson through his first marriage to Livia, to continue the Julio-Claudia dynasty; and in fact there were suggestions in antiquity that Livia may have had a hand in events turning to favour her son. Tiberius was recalled to Rome to be formally adopted as heir and in turn adopted his own nephew, Germanicus, as his heir, thereby assuring the continuation of the dynasty.
Augustus died at Nola on the 19th August AD 14 at the age of 75. His body was returned to Rome with enormous ceremony, where he was cremated and his ashes interred in his vast mausoleum. Tiberius and Drusus delivered funerary orations, Augustus was deified, and his achievements (and useful propaganda!) in his Res Gestae inscribed on bronze pillars set in front of the mausoleum. Perhaps most importantly, he had established the new empire with an individual emperor at the head. He had transformed Rome physically and his legacy as Rome’s greatest emperor, and through the cult of Divus Augstus, shaped the empire for many centuries to follow. Two versions of his last words were reported. Publicly he is reported to have said:
Found it (Rome) of brick but left it of marble
While in private he is supposed to have said:
Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit.
Coinage of Augustus
With the emergence of the principate from c.27 BC there was also a change to the Roman coinage that saw the introduction of the Augustan currency system. The denarius, in use since the end of the 3rd century BC, remained the standard silver denomination and was struck at about 3.9g of very pure silver. Above this, the larger gold aureus, a coin of about 8g of pure gold, was valued at 25 denarii. The most extensive change, however, came with the reorganisation of the base metal, bronze, coinages whose relative values as fractions of the denarius were fixed and remained in place until the mid-3rd century AD. The sestertius, originally a small silver coin during the Republican period but now a large brassy coin of about 26g, was the largest of the base metal denominations, valued at a quarter of a denarius. Beneath this was a brassy dupondius of around 12.5g, valued at half a sestertius, and a copper as of around 11g, valued at half a dupondius. The two smallest denominations, the semis and the quadrans (a half and a quarter of an as respectively), we have looked at in previous blogs.
Coins of Augustus are not hugely common as PAS finds. There are currently 321 single coins recorded on the PAS database, the majority of which are denarii from various mints in the western empire, with just four aurei and fewer than 30 bronze coins. Indeed, bronze coins of Augustus are rare even as British site finds and gold is never common.
Coins of Augustus were struck at a number of mints in both the eastern and western empire, particularly in the early years of his reign following the Battle of Actium. These can usually be distinguished from one another based on the coin types and denominations attributed to each mint, although take with worn coins. In this piece we follow the outline of Augustus’ coinage given in RIC I (2nd edition), although much has been written on the subject and this may require adjustment to the PAS records in the future.
Spain: three mints striking coins between c.25-16 BC (Emerita, and two uncertain mints, possibly Colonia Caesaraugusta(?) and Colonia Patricia(?))
Gaul: three(?) mints striking coins between c.20 BC-AD 14 (Nemausus, Lugdunum and Treveri(?))
Italy: several(?) mints striking between c.32 BC-AD 12 (uncertain Italian mints and Rome)
Eastern mints: multiple mints striking between c.31-15 BC (North Peloponnesus, Samos(?), Ephesos, Pergamon, Antioch and Cyrenaica)
Other uncertain mints striking between c.28-17 BC
Within the PAS dataset we are largely dealing with coins from mints in Spain, Italy and especially Gaul, which is understandably the best represented given its proximity to Britain. The are 289 coins attributed to Augustus on the PAS database, of which 265 can be ascribed to a mint. Of these, more than half the of the total are coins from the mint of Lugdunum.
Lugdunum (Lyon, France)
The mint at Lugdunum began striking coins under Augstus in c.15 BC, replacing the coin production of the Spanish mints in the western empire. From c.12 BC the mint at Rome stopped minting precious metal coinage, only striking bronze from this point onwards. Production of aurei and denarii shifted to Lugdunum. Importantly, Augustus himself controlled the provinces so could issue coinage here without any influence from the authorities in Rome, while the city itself was close both to key silver reserves in Spain and the armies on the Rhine that required payment. The city became an important centre of the imperial cult. From c.12 BC, Drusus brought together the tribes of the three imperial Gallic provinces (the Tres Galliae) with Lugdunum becoming the focal point of the concilium galliarum at an altar to Rome and Augustus, personally dedicated by Augustus on his visit to the city with annual celebrations on the 1st August.
The first issues from Lugdunum carry Augustus’ title of IMP X, Augustus is depicted bare headed and as the divine son of Caesar (divi filius). Record ID is WILT-CEB2C2 (Salisbury & South Wiltshire Museum, license: CC-BY).
Coins of Lugdunum are the most commonly seen on the PAS, with almost two-thirds of all examples belonging to the mint. Of these, 99 coins are of one type with reverse depicting the two imperial heirs Gaius and Lucius. The majority are aurei and denarii, with just 12 base metal coins recorded to date.
The most significant group of coins from the Lugdunum mint is the issue of coins from c.2 BC onward with distinctive reverse types depicting Augustus’ grandsons, the caesars Gaius and Lucius. Woytek and Blet-Lemarquand (2017: p. 185)13 describe this issue as “the iconic coins of the Augustan age par excellence” and it was struck in huge volume. This is the only issue on the PAS represented by aurei as single finds (3 coins) with 96 denarii. Augustus is depicted laureate, still as divi filius, but now also Pater Patriae (‘father of his country’) – a title afforded to him in 2 BC. The reverse type refers to Gaius and Lucius as consules designati (COS DESIG), which indicates that the issue of this coinage must have begun in c.2-1 BC after Augustus became pater patriae and before Gaius became consul in AD 1.
Record ID is LEIC-35CCA5 (Leicestershire County Council, license: CC-BY).
The denarii of this issue fall into four main types in RIC, nos. 207, 210, 211, and 212. A fifth variety, RIC no. 208 appears to be a restitution issue struck after Augustus’ death. All four of these types are essentially identical, the difference being the arrangement of the lituus and simpulum on the reverse between the spears. RIC 207 is by far the most common, with 83 of the PAS examples likely attributable to this type.
The placement of the simpulum and lituus are potentially significant chronologically and an excellent summary, followed here, is found in the analysis of this type by Woytek and BletLemarquand (2017). In RIC 207, the most common type, the simpulum as a symbol of the pontifex is on the left, indicating Gaius who became pontifex in 7 BC is standing to the left of the reverse type. The lituus, on the other hand, was the symbol of the augur and therefore of Lucius who stands to the right. These swap around in RIC 210 and so the caesars also swap places. Gaius’ seniority is also represented by his shield always being in front of that of Lucius – the shields and spears symbolise the brothers’ coming of age. Coins bearing an X beneath the simpulum and lituus have been interpreted as a commemorative issue struck after the deaths of Gaius (AD 4) and Lucius (AD 2), perhaps connected to the lex Valeria Cornelia in AD 5 that ordered senators and equites into ten centuries, five named for Gaius and five for Lucius, when voting for candidates for consul and praetor.
An important last issue to note is the appearance just prior to Augustus’ death of coins that reference the new heir, Tiberius, and which carry on into the latter’s reign (below right), replacing the Gaius and Lucius coinages from c.13 AD. There are only five PAS coins from this period, but it is important to note the distinctive PONTIF MAXIM reverse type (below left) that is prolific under Tiberius but rare for Augustus.
Left: record ID LIN-AE1D8E (Lincolnshire County Council, license: CC-BY). Right: record ID IOW-BDC677 (Portable Antiquities Scheme, license: CC-BY).
Base metal coinage from the Lugdunum mint is much rarer on the PAS than the silver. This might be expected, since the coinage is being struck prior to the Claudian invasion and at a time when Britain was not integrated into the empire. Silver and gold were intrinsically valuable and so could have travelled across the channel both prior to AD 43 but most likely following the invasion to pay the incoming legions within the new province. Bronze in contrast wouldn’t have functioned or circulated in the same way prior to the invasion. There are just 12 possible bronze coins of Augustus from Lugdunum recorded on the database to date, nine asses and three semisses, all with the same reverse type that depicts the altar of Augustus and Rome at Lugdunum with the reverse legend ROM ET AVG. This reverse type appears in c.15 BC and soon replaces the Nemausus aes as the predominant bronze coinage in the western empire. One thing to note with the bronze of both the Nemausus and Lugdunum mints is that they do not carry the S C on the reverse type as these are essentially issued from regional/provincial mints and so not directly under the auspices of the senate at Rome.
We have focused on coins from the mint at Lugdunum in this blog post as they are the ones most commonly seen through the PAS. If you’d like to see examples from other mints, please download Andrew’s full article below.
There are many texts on Augustus’ life, see for example W. Eck The Age of Augustus (2007)
Suetonius Divus Augustus 29; see also Cassius Dio LVI.30: “I found Rome of clay; I leave it to you of marble”
Butcher and Ponting’s (2005) analysis of Augustan denarii from Spain and Lugdunum suggest almost pure silver.
P-A Besombes and J-N Barrandon ‘Les dupondii de Nîmes : datation, diffusion et nature du métal utilisé’ RN 157, 2001: 305-328
B. Wolters ‘The Julio-Claudians’ in The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage (2012), p. 339
B. Woytek and M. Blet-Lemarquand ‘The C. L. CAESARES denarii RIC I² Augustus 208. A pseudoAugustan unsigned restoration issue. Corpus, die study, metallurgical analyses’ RN 174, 2017: 183-248
Welcome to the next edition of Coin Relief! In this issue, Sam Moorhead looks at the “fallen horseman” coin type.
FEL TEMP REPARATIO and SPES REI PVBLICE nummi
In a previous edition, I wrote about the Reformed Coinage of AD 348-50, outlining the three different nummi (AE2a, AE2b and AE3 sizes) and their types. In the early years of the reformed coinage, the AE2a with the legend FEL TEMP REPARATIO and type of a soldier spearing a fallen horseman is quite scarce in the Western Empire. I briefly discussed this type before, but intentionally deferred full coverage of the issue until this later piece. This is because the ‘fallen horseman’ type becomes increasingly common after AD 350 and ultimately becomes the only type issued with the FEL TEMP REPARATIO legend after AD 353.
On the Database, there are almost 6,000 FEL TEMP REPARATIO ‘fallen horseman’ coins (a search brings up 5,987, but there are probably more). Of these, around 3,825 (64%) pieces are listed as being contemporary copies, but I believe the proportion is higher. Of these coins, it appears that around 50 date to the period 348-51, the vast majority being official pieces and contemporary copies dating to c. AD 353-61. There is still much editing to be done of these coins and so more precise figures can be given in the future.
Varieties of ‘Fallen Horseman’
Three varieties of “Fallen Horsemen”.
Different RIC numbers often depend on the reverse legend break in FEL TEMP REPARATIO (as noted for specimens illustrated in this article: FEL TEMP REPARATIO; FEL TEMP R – EPARATIO; FEL TEMP RE – PARATIO) and on the style of the ‘fallen horseman’. Sometimes, the horseman falls forward over the horse’s neck and at other times he turns to face the soldier with one or two arms extended; on a few issues, he is bare-headed, but on most he wears a pointed, or Phrygian, cap (a common symbol used for barbarians in Roman art). There are an infinite number of different varieties which are noted in RIC VIII. Also helpful for analysing the reverse type is G. Bruck, Late Roman Bronze Coinage – An attribution for poorly preserved coins (trans. Alisdair Menzies) (Geneva, 2014).2
AD 348-50 at Western Mints This type (up to 23mm in diameter, and weighing over 5g) was struck across the empire but was struck in far fewer numbers than the ‘galley’ types in the West. It was the preferred type at Eastern mints. Hence, few of these coins are found in Britain. However, in recent editing, I have come across another piece from Lyon, dating to this period with an unpublished mintmark, shown below.
Copper-alloy nummus of Constantius II, Lugdunum, unpublished mintmark. Record ID is OXON-51F0ED
Arles (Arelatum) was to strike a number of issues of these coins from AD 348-50. The examples below (left and centre) are standard types, struck alongside the bulk of the reformed coins in AD 348-50. The example on the right, though, is interesting in that it is apparently struck later in 350 after Magnentius had usurped power in the West.
Nummi of Constantius II. Left to right: DENO-CA0EC3, SWYOR-62E563 and SWYOR-A5D944 (Derby Museums Trust and West Yorkshire Archaeology Advisory Service, all license CC-BY).
AD 348-54 at Central and Eastern Mints In the west, the ‘fallen horseman’ type ceases to be struck under Magnentius and Decentius (AD 350-3), but in Central and Eastern Mints it continues to be issued, at mints such as Rome, Siscia , Thessalonica, and Constantinople, for Constantius II and his Caesar, Constantius Gallus. Although common in the Mediterranean region, these coins are much scarcer in Britain.
Nummus of Constantius II, mint of Siscia, AD 351-5. Record ID is SF-531528 (Suffolk County Council, License CC-BY)
Mint of Amiens (Ambianum), AD 353 In 350, Magnentius had set up a new mint in his hometown of Amiens (Ambianum) where extensive issues were struck for him and his brother Decentius. After Magnentius’ defeat in August AD 353, Constantius II continued to strike coins for a few months, in his own name and that of Constantius Gallus, his Caesar. These coins are sometimes found in hoards containing coins predominantly of Magnentius and Decentius.
Nummus of Constantius II, mint of Amiens, AD 353. Record ID is SUR-D8C945 (Surrey County Council, License CC-BY).
The Reforms of AD 354-64 Soon after the defeat of Magnentius and Decentius, the size of the nummi starts to decline from over 20mm to around 17mm in the late 350s. The weights declined from around 4-6g to just over 2g. The legislation that led to this change appears to have survived. Preserved in the Theodosian Code, a collection of laws compiled under the emperor Theodosius II in AD 438, is a decree that was probably made in 354, and possibly re-issued in 356 (CTh IX.23.1). It has been interpreted in different ways by scholars, but it appears to have dealt with trade between Arles (in southern France) and Africa and includes a reference to three types of coins which were banned or whose movement was restricted:
1: “Coins which are known to be forbidden.” These are almost certainly the coins of Magnentius and Decentius which would have been demonetized after the death of Magnentius in 353. It is interesting that there are a large number of hoards which terminate with coins of Magnentius, or soon afterwards. These hoards were probably buried after the defeat of Magnentius when Constantius had outlawed his coins. The owners of the coins probably hoped that might be of value at some time in the future. In fact, some of these large module coins were cut down for use when coins were reduced in size.
2: “Maiorinae” which might be the large (and smaller) AE 2 coins mentioned above. It does seem that all the FEL TEMP REPARATIO large module coins were now restricted in their movement or even banned from use. A blanket ban of all large coins would certainly quickly remove all the coins of Magnentius and Decentius from circulation.
3: “Centionales Communales” might be the pre-348 coins (or possibly the AE2b nummi) which were still in circulation. That pre-348 coins were banned is suggested by their over-striking with the smaller module FEL TEMP REPARATIO ‘falling horseman’ types.
AD 353-61 – Smaller module FEL TEMP REPARATIO ‘fallen horseman’ issues from Trier, Lyon and Arles
After 353, the only FEL TEMP REPARATIO type to be struck was that of depicting the ‘fallen horseman’. As noted above, the module and weight of the coin was reduced until in the late 350s it could be a piece of around 17mm in diameter with a weight of little over 2g. These coins were struck in much larger numbers in the western mints than the earlier ‘fallen horseman’ types and the majority of the pieces on the PAS Database with legible mintmarks come from Trier, Lyon and Arles. The vast majority of coins were struck for Constantius II who is shown wearing a pearl-diadem or rosette-diadem. In the period 353-4, coins are also struck for Constantius Gallus, who as a Caesar is depicted bare-headed. From 355 to 360, Julian is Caesar and is also shown bare-headed. On coins with bare heads, but unclear legends, it might not be easy to differentiate between Gallus and Julian, although Gallus’ coins tend to be larger and Julian’s pieces are generally quite scarce.
Mint of Trier Having been the major mint in the West for much of the Fourth Century, the output at Trier appears to decline after AD 353. Compared to the output of Lyon and Arles, that of Trier is modest in the period AD 353-5, Fig. 16 showing the only common entry (RIC VIII 350) recorded. After 355, no ‘fallen horseman’ types are recorded. However, contemporary copies of Trier pieces are relatively common, apparently outnumbering official pieces amongst the 135 specimens on the PAS Database. This is a conundrum because one would expect fewer copies of coins when official pieces are scarce.
Nummus of Constantius II, mint of Trier, AD 353-5. Record ID is PUBLIC-742BBB (Graham Brandejs, License CC-BY).
Lyon (Lugdunum) There appear to be considerably more official coins struck at Lyon in this period than at Trier. Of the c, 280 or so pieces on the Database, the vast majority are for Constantius II with only five for Constantius Gallus and one for Julian. Amongst these coins, there are also copies, identified by their mintmarks.
Nummus of Julian as Caesar, mint of Lyon, AD 355-60. Record ID PUBLIC-A279D5 (Lindsey Bedford, License CC-BY-NC-SA).
Arles Arles has a comparable number of pieces (125) to Trier, but a much higher proportion of the coins are official pieces. Again, the majority are for Constantius II, with but around 11 for Constantius Gallus and two for Julian. Note how the reverse legend break is used to differentiate many of the common type.
Nummus of Constantius II, mint of Arles, AD 353-5. The legend break on the reverse determines many of the different RIC numbers for this issue. Record ID is NLM-5BB7E8 (North Lincolnshire Museum, License CC-BY).
AD 352-61 – Smaller module FEL TEMP REPARATIO ‘fallen horseman’ issues from Central and Eastern Empire Mints
‘Fallen horseman’ types continued to be struck across the Empire (even whilst Magnentius was ruling in the West) with small numbers arriving in Britain from Mints such as Rome, Aquileia, Siscia, and Thessalonica. These mints have fewer than 10 records each on the Database, except for Siscia with 20 records.
Nummus of Constantius II, mint of Aquileia, AD 352-5. Record ID is SUR-077840 (Surrey County Council, License CC-BY).
Contemporary Copies of FEL TEMP REPARATIO ‘fallen horseman’types, c. AD 355-615
Contemporary copy of a nummus of Constantius II. This coin is 1.7mm thick and weights 0.88g. Record ID is BH-264EE6 (St. Alban’s District Council, License CC-BY).
As noted above, there appear to be around 3,825 contemporary copies on the Database, making up 64% of the total for ‘fallen horseman’ types. However, the practice of editing shows that there are probably many more contemporary copies in the corpus. Copies range from good quality pieces, often with accurate or plausible inscriptions and mintmarks to small and crude copies which can be less than 10mm in diameter. Some of the smallest pieces can be quite dumpy, sometimes apparently due to the flans being cut from bronze rods. These small, dumpy pieces are quite distinctive and are normally from this period, so if you have a poorly preserved piece, look for any defining feature of the ‘fallen horseman’ type: the horse’s rump is often quite pronounced. On the PAS Database, we date these copies to c. AD 355-61, but it is possible that some were produced up to AD 363 or even later, before the massive issues of Valentinianic nummi began to arrive in Britain in the later AD 360s. These coins were probably issued in great numbers because of a dearth of official small change, the official pieces of Trier, Lyon and Arles (see above) being insufficient to satisfy demand. They are found in hoards, but also often at temple or shrine sites, such as 1630 specimens in a hoard from the Temple of Nodens at Lydney in Gloucestershire (found during the excavations by Mortimer Wheeler in 1929 – see IARCH-E8C9B4). It is possible that their presence on religious sites is because there was an upsurge in activity at many ritual sites across the province in response to the promotion of paganism by the emperor Julian (AD 360-3).
Overstrikes of FEL TEMP REPARATIO ‘fallen horseman’ copies on earlier issues
Above, I note how it is possible that pre-AD 348 coins were outlawed in 354. It is quite possible that they had already been prohibited from use in 348 with the new coinage reform enacted then. However, with the banning of large denomination coins in AD 354, it is possible to see how older, small module, coins could come back into play. There are many examples of FEL TEMP REPARATIO ‘fallen horseman’ copies being overstruck on pieces of the period AD 330-48. The example below shows an example with the GLORIA EXERCITVS undertype clearly visible. Older coins would have provided a good source of ‘ready-made’ flans for striking, precluding the need to provide fresh flans from scratch. If you have a fourth century nummus with a supposedly unintelligible reverse, check to see if it is not one of these coins.
Contemporary copy of a nummus of Constantius II, overstruck on a GLORIA EXERCITVS type of c. AD 340-1. Record ID is NLM-5D69BD (North Lincolnshire Museum, License CC-BY).
SPES REI PVBLICE nummi of c. AD 355-61 In the second half of the 350s, a new smaller bronze denomination was issued from mints across the Empire. The SPES REI PVBLICE issue depicted the emperor standing left, holding globe and spear. (They should not be confused with VIRTVS AVGG NN and VIRTVS AVGVSTI pieces of AD 337-40 with roughly similar types – see DCR 11, Figs. 26-29).
Nummus of Constantius II, mint of Rome, AD 355-61. Record ID is BERK-B63832 (Oxfordshire County Council, License CC-BY).
Although RIC includes the issue in the period AD 355-61, I believe that, from hoard evidence, the coins started to be struck later in the 350s. These coins are quite commonly found on sites in the Mediterranean region, but are rare in Britain, with only around 90 specimens on the PAS Database. Very few were struck at Trier and Lyon; Arles was the only Western mint to strike them in any number but, even so, only four specimens for Arles have been identified on the PAS Database so far. Amongst the mints represented on the Database are Rome, Siscia, Sirmium, Thessalonica, Heraclea, Constantinople, and possibly Cyzicus. The rarity of these coins in Britain is another reason why there was an apparent need to produce contemporary copies of ‘fallen horseman’ pieces.
References and further reading
The standard reference for the FEL TEMP REPARATIO ‘fallen horseman’ coinage is Roman Imperial Coinage volume VIII, published in 1981.
S. Moorhead, ‘The Easterton Hoard of Mid-Fourth Century Roman Coins’, Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine 78 (1984), pp. 41-9 – one of these coins is the latest piece in the hoard.
I discuss these reforms in more detail in S. Moorhead, ‘Emperors, Usurpers, Decrees and Forgery, AD 348-56’ UK Detector Net Issue 11 (July 2008).
The best overall summary of contemporary copies in Britain remains G. C. Boon, ‘Counterfeit coins in Roman Britain’, in J. Casey and R. Reece, Coins and the Archaeologist (Seaby, 1988), pp. 102-88.
The most comprehensive study of these copies is R. Brickstock, Copies of the Fel Temp Reparatio Coinage in Britain: a study of their chronology and archaeological significance including gazetteers of hoards and Site Finds (BAR British Series 176, 1987).
Elagabalus struck coins for five female members of the imperial family, his grandmother Julia Maesa, his mother Julia Soaemias, and his wives Julia Paula, Julia Aquilia Severa and Annia Faustina.
Julia Maesa, AD 218-222 or later
Julia Maesa was the sister of Julia Domna (Septimius Severus’ wife) and grandmother of Elagabalus. The coins of Julia Maesa are normally assigned to the reign of Elagabalus, AD 218-222. However, she survived the death of Elagabalus and Julia Soaemias, in AD 222, and remained in the imperial court as grandmother of the new emperor Severus Alexander (AD 222-235) until her death in AD 225. It is known that provincial coins were struck for Maesa under Severus Alexander, and given that her coins outnumber (by almost a factor of three) those of Julia Soaemias (see Table 1) it is entirely plausible that imperial coins continued to be struck for her after AD 222. This larger number of coins might also reflect the fact that Julia Maesa was probably the most important of the imperial women in Elagabalus’ court.
For PAS purposes, coins are dated to AD 218-222 which places them in Reece Period 10. Future research and editing could change and narrow down some of the dates.
Mint of Rome The bulk of Julia Maesa’s coinage was struck at Rome, in gold, silver, and base-metal. It appears that all the coins of Julia Maesa on the PAS Database are from the mint at Rome, although future editing might identify a few from the Eastern Mint / Antioch.
Silver ‘Radiates’ We saw in a previous blog that Elagabalus continued to strike radiates, which had been introduced by Caracalla in AD 215, for a short time in AD 218-219. Whereas the emperors were shown with the radiate crown of Sol on the obverse, the empresses were to be shown with their bust on the crescent moon of Luna. There is only one radiate of Julia Maesa on the PAS Database.
The only radiate of Julia Maesa on the PAS database: WAW-432771 (Birmingham Museums Trust, license CC-BY).
Silver denarii Silver denarii make up the vast majority of coins of Julia Maesa found in Britain. There are 147 (excluding the 17 IARCW Welsh pieces), although a number of these are contemporary copies. As for Elagabalus, the silver was debased and this means that many coins are either darker in colour or have surface verdigris. Below are listed the different types recorded on the PAS Database, most of the known issues being represented. The most common are PVDICITIA and SAECVLI FELICITAS, types which also predominate in the Shapwick Hoard.
Silver denarius of Julia Maesa, AD 281-222. Record ID GLO-10D842 (Bristol City Council, licence CC-BY).
Base-metal coinage There are only four base metal coins of Julia Maesa on the PAS Database. Given the rarity of base metal coins of Elagabalus (see Daily Coin Relief Edition 68), this comes as no surprise. Two are sestertii and one a dupondius or as. The other is a contemporary copy (limesfalsum) of a dupondius or as (PUBLIC-76C893). Limesfalsa will be covered in another blog.
Eastern Mint / Antioch Elagabalus struck a significant number of gold and silver coins in the East. Antioch is traditionally given as the site of the mint, although it could well have moved with Elagabalus some of the time. Kevin Butcher has suggested that it moved as far west as Nicomedia in western Turkey in the first year of his reign.4 The attribution of coins to the Eastern mint to the empresses, as for Elagabalus, is often on the basis of style. An example in the British Museum collection, does show a distinctly different obverse style from the Rome coins. However, no coin of Julia Maesa on the PAS Database appears to be from the Eastern Mint.
Silver denarius of Julia Maesa from the Eastern Mint. British Museum BM 1979,0614.39.
Julia Soaemias, AD 218-222
Julia Soaemias was the mother of Elagabalus and played a major role in his accession. Along with Julia Maesa, Julia Soaemias was instrumental in maintaining a stable government during Elagabalus’s reign. Of course, in the end Elagabalus became too much for Rome and he and his mother were assassinated.
Mint of Rome Elagabalus struck in gold, silver and base-metal for Julia Soaemias at Rome. Gold is very rare and it appears that silver ‘radiates’ were not struck for Soaemias. Again, silver denarii are the most common coins; in fact, they are the only denomination recorded on the PAS Database with 59 specimens (excluding 11 IARCW pieces). Of these, the two VENVS CAELESTIS types are by far the most common, again mirroring the Shapwick Hoard. Single specimens, but without images, are recorded for ANNONA AVG (RIC 234), PIETAS AVG (RIC 237A) and PVDICITIA (RIC 238).
Silver denarius if Julia Soaemias with VENVS CAELESTIS reverse. Record ID WILT-FDE852 (Salisbury & South Wiltshire Museum, License CC-BY).
Base-Metal coinage Sestertii, dupondii and asses of Julia Soaemias are scarce. None have been recorded on the PAS Database.
Eastern Mint / Antioch Coins of Julia Soaemias from the Eastern Mint appear to be very rare and there are none on the PAS Database.
Julia Paula, AD 219-220
Julia Cornelia Paula hailed from an aristocratic Roman family. She married Elagabalus in AD 219, but they were divorced the following year.
Mint of Rome Rome struck for Julia Paula in gold, silver and base-metal. However, the silver denarii are by far the most common and are the only denomination recorded on the PAS Database. Of the 16 pieces, the CONCORDIA type is by far the most numerous with 12 specimens recorded.
Silver denarius of Julia Paula, c.AD 218-219. Record ID LEIC-B50412 (The Portable Antiquities Scheme, license CC-BY).
Base-metal coinage Base-metal coins of Julia Paula are rare and none are recorded on the PAS Database.
Eastern Mint / Antioch Identifying Eastern mint coins for Julia Paula is open to some debate. It appears that pieces with braided hair are more likely to emanate from the Eastern Mint, although one such piece is attributed to Rome in BMC V (pl. 88, no. 15). It does seem that there are more coins struck in the East for Julia Paula than for any of the other empresses, at least four being recorded on the PAS Database.
Rome or Eastern Mint / Antioch
Silver denarius of Julia Paula, c.AD 218-219, VENVS GENETRIX reverse. Record ID LIN-7F6B44 (The Portable Antiquities Scheme, License CC-BY-SA).
This type, VENVS GENETRIX, is recorded in BMC V for both Rome (p. 555, no. 177) and the Eastern Mint (p. 583, nos. 323-5). The coin attributed to Rome does not have the distinctive Rome bust with ridged hair (see Fig. 22, above) but has braided hair (BMC V, pl. 88, no. 15). This piece does not have ridged hair, but nor does it have braided hair; in some ways it resembles the hairstyle of Julia Maesa at Rome. It does appear to have the feel of an Eastern Mint coin, but only further research can confirm this.
Ancient forgeries The first coin shown here appears to be an ancient forgery copying the obverse of Julia Paula with the reverse type, PROVIDENTIA AVG, common to emperors. The second is a much cruder coin, inspired by the obverse of Julia Paula and again a reverse type, AEQVITAS AVG, common to emperors. Both portraits appear to have been inspired by Eastern Mint coins.
Contemporary copies of Julia Paula denarii.
Julia Aquilia Severa, AD 220-222
Elagabalus’s second wife was Julia Aquilia Severa who was a Vestal Virgin, responsible for tending the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum. This union was scandalous because Vestal Virgins were forbidden from having sexual intercourse; the punishment was to be buried alive. However, Elagabalus claimed it was permissible as he was the high priest of his religion, and she the high priestess of hers. He rejected Aquilia in AD 221, in favour of his third wife Annia Faustina, but returned to Aquilia by the end of AD 221. Therefore, it is safest to date Aquilia Severa’s coins to AD 220-222.
Mint of Rome Coins were struck in gold, silver and base-metal. Denarii are the most common denomination, but even they are rare. There is only one example on the PAS Database.
Eastern Mint / Antioch The coin, below left, is worn, but the style of the coin does appear to be that of the Eastern Mint. However, we can be more confident with the coin on the right which has a reverse type which might only have been used in the East.
Annia Faustina, AD 221
Elagabalus’ marriage to Annia Faustina was very brief. This is reflected by the rarity of her coins which are known to have been struck in Rome. Only denarii and sestertii are known, the sestertius illustrated below being in the British Museum collection.
Sestertius of Annia Faustina, c.AD 221. BM/BMC V, no. 451 (copyright Trustees of The British Museum).
